Treatment of inflammatory disorders

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure provides compounds and methods of use thereof for treating inflammatory diseases or disorders.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/157,069, filed Oct. 10, 2018; which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 62/644,263, filed on Mar. 16, 2018, and 62/570,389, filed on Oct. 10, 2017. The entirety of each application is incorporated herein by reference thereto.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to aldehyde-trapping compounds such as I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, for treatment of inflammatory disorders and other diseases, disorders, and conditions such as those described herein.

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory disorders include a group of diseases and conditions in which the body's biological response to stimuli results in the immune system attacking the body's own cells or tissues, leading to abnormal inflammation and resulting in chronic pain, redness, swelling, stiffness, and damage to normal tissues. Inflammatory disorders can be acute or chronic.

Generally, the treatment of inflammatory disorders includes the use of immunosuppressants, such as steroids (e.g., prednisone, budesonide (Entocort EC), and prednisolone), anti-metabolites (e.g., methotrexate), and cytotoxic agents (e.g., cyclophosphamide), to reduce or inhibit the activity of immune system cells that participate in the inflammatory response. Some treatments are directed to inhibiting cytokine mediators of the inflammatory response, such as TNF-α and proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-1, IL 6, IL-8, IL-12, IFN-7, and IL-18, and some therapeutic agents attack specific immune cells involved in the inflammatory response. Many of these treatments include therapeutic antibodies, such as abatacept, adalimumab, anakinra (Kineret), certolizumab, etanercept, golimumab, infliximab, ixekizumab, natalizumab, rituximab, secukinumab, tocilizumab, ustekinumab, and vedolizumab.

Other treatments for inflammatory disorders include calcineurin inhibitors (e.g., cyclosporine and tacrolimus), mTOR inhibitors (e.g., sirolimus and everolimus), and IMPDH inhibitors (e.g., azathioprine, leflunomide, and mycophenolate), all of which affect immune system cells.

While existing treatments may provide effective relief, they are not effective for a significant percentage of patients or have associated side effects because of adverse effects on the immune system or other physiological targets. Desirable are treatments directed to aspects of the inflammatory response not targeted by existing approved therapeutics.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present disclosure provides compounds that are capable of reacting with aldehydes for the treatment of certain inflammatory disorders. In some embodiments, the inflammatory disorder can be systemic or localized to a particular tissue or organ. In some embodiments, the disease, disorder or disease for treatment with the compounds of the disclosure is non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, inflammatory bowl disease, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis (UC), psoriasis, IBS (irritable bowel syndrome or spastic colon), including spastic colon, ankylosing spondylitis, osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriatic arthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), atherosclerosis, pulmonary arterial hypertension, pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy, atopic dermatitis, rosacea, multiple sclerosis (MS), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), lupus nephritis, sepsis, eosinophilic esophagitis, chronic kidney disease (CKD), fibrotic renal disease, chronic eosinophilic pneumonia, extrinsic allergic alveolitis, pre-eclampsia, endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), reduced female fertility, reduced sperm viability and motility, or cyclophosphamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitis.

In some embodiments, the disease, disorder, or condition for treatment with the compounds of the disclosure is light chain deposition disease, IgA nephropathy, end stage renal disease, gout, pseudogout, diabetic nephrophathy, diabetic neuropathy, traumatic brain injury, noise-induced hearing loss, Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Huntington Disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, primary biliary cirrhosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, uterine leiomyoma, sarcoidosis, or chronic kidney disease.

In some embodiments, the disease, disorder, or condition for treatment with the compounds of the disclosure is an ocular inflammatory disorder. In some embodiments, the ocular inflammatory disorder is diabetic macular edema (DME), atopic keratoconjunctivitis (AKC), vernal keratoconjunctivitis (VKC), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), dry eye disease (DED), allergic conjunctivitis (AC), dry eye disease with allergic conjunctivitis, noninfectious anterior uveitis, posterior uveitis, pan-uveitis, post-surgical ocular pain and inflammation.

In some embodiments, the compound of the disclosure is administered in an effective amount for the prevention of corneal fibrosis after radial keratotomy, prevention of corneal fibrosis after trauma, or prevention of corneal fibrosis after infection.

In some embodiments, a method of treating an inflammatory disorder comprises administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of formula (I):

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein W, X, Y, Z, U, R^(a), R^(b) and k are as described in the detailed description.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the treatment of the disease, disorder, or condition is a compound of formula II:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each of R¹, R⁷, and R⁸ is independently H, D, halogen, —NH₂, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or

wherein one of R¹, R⁷ and R⁸ is —NH₂ and other one of R¹ R⁷ and R⁸ is

R² is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;

R³ is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;

R⁴ is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;

R⁵ is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;

R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms;

R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms; or R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and

each R is independently selected from hydrogen, deuterium, and an optionally substituted group selected from C₁₋₆ aliphatic; a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring; phenyl; an 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring; a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; a 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; a 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and a 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in treatment of the disease, disorder, or condition is a compound of formula III:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

Q, T, and V are independently S, N, O, or —C—R;

each of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is independently H, D, halogen, —NH₂, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or

wherein one of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is —NH₂ and other one of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is

R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms; and

R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms; or R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3-8 membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and

each R is independently selected from hydrogen, deuterium, and an optionally substituted group selected from: C₁₋₆ aliphatic, a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring, phenyl, an 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring, a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, a 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, a 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and a 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in treating the disease, disorder, or condition is a compound of formula I-22:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in treating the disease, disorder, or condition is a compound of formula I-5:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in treating the disease, disorder, or condition is a compound of formula I-6:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In various embodiments, the compounds can be administered systemically, such as intravenously or parenterally, or locally, such as topically or localized injection, to effect treatment of the disease, disorder or condition.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows results of administering compound I-22 to the eye of animals with chemically-induced diabetes. Retinas of animal treated with the Compound I-22 show reduced retinal thickness as compared to animals not treated with the compound.

FIG. 2 shows results of administering compound I-22 in a rat model of endotoxin-induced uveitis. Retinas of test animals were scored for retinal vasculopathy, and retinal hemorrhage, exudate and detachment.

FIG. 3 depicts ocular discomfort & 4-Symptom Questionnaire: Dryness [Intent-To-Treat (ITT) Population with Observed Data Only] for a dry eye disease (DED) clinical trial.

FIG. 4 depicts ocular discomfort & 4-Symptom Questionnaire: Overall Ocular Discomfort (ITT Population with Observed Data Only) for a DED clinical trial.

FIG. 5 depicts Fluorescein Staining: Conjunctival Sum Score (Nasal and Temporal) (ITT Population with Observed Data Only) for a DED clinical trial.

FIG. 6 depicts Fluorescein Staining: Nasal (ITT Population with Observed Data Only) for a DED clinical trial.

FIG. 7 depicts Tear Quantity and Quality Improved: Tear Film Break-Up Time (TFBUT), Schirmer's Test and Tear Osmolarity Supports Broad Activity Profile (Endpoint-Specific Worst Eye: ITT Population with Observed Data Only) for a DED clinical trial. CFB=change from baseline.

FIG. 8 depicts Fluorescein Staining: Inferior Total Population (N=100/100/100) vs High Median Subgroup (N=68/69/66) (ITT Population with Observed Data Only) for a DED clinical trial. CFB=change from baseline.

FIG. 9 depicts Fluorescein Staining: Nasal Total Population (N=100/100/100) vs High Median Subgroup (N=59/56/62) (ITT Population with Observed Data Only) for a DED clinical trial. CFB=change from baseline.

FIG. 10 depicts Fluorescein Staining: Conjunctival Sum Score (Nasal and Temporal) Total Population (N=100/100/100) vs High Median Subgroup (N=55/56/60) (ITT Population with Observed Data Only) for a DED clinical trial. CFB=change from baseline.

FIG. 11 shows body weight change from Study Day −3 (g) in female Swiss Webster mice in a model of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced acute ulcerative colitis (UC). n=five naive Controls; n=10/treatment group; †p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (IP); ‡p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle PO; *p<0.05 ANOVA (Dunnett's post-hoc) vs. Vehicle (PO).

FIG. 12 shows Disease Activity Index Stool Consistency Score data in female Swiss Webster mice in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. *p<0.05 Kruskal-Wallis test (Dunn's post hoc) vs. Vehicle (PO); †p<0.05 Student's t-test/Mann-Whitney test vs. Vehicle (IP)

FIG. 13 shows Disease Activity Index Occult/Gross Blood Score data in female Swiss Webster mice in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. †p<0.05 Student's t-test/Mann-Whitney test vs. Vehicle (IP)

FIG. 14 shows Disease Activity Index Summed Score data in female Swiss Webster mice in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. †p<0.05 Student's t-test/Mann-Whitney test vs. Vehicle (IP); ‡p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (PO)

FIG. 15 shows Colon Length in cm for mice treated with I-5, I-22, or I-6 in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. n=5/Naive Controls, n=10/treatment group; †p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (SBECD) IP; p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (MC) PO; *p<0.05 ANOVA (Dunnett's post-hoc) vs. Vehicle (MC) PO.

FIG. 16 shows Colon Weight per length (g/cm) for mice treated with I-5, I-22, or I-6 in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. †p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (IP); ‡p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle PO.

FIG. 17 shows Mean Inflammation Score (0-5) for mice treated with I-5, I-22, or I-6 in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. †p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (IP); ‡p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle PO.

FIG. 18 shows Mean Gland Loss Score (0-5) for mice treated with I-5, I-22, or I-6 in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. †p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (IP); ‡p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle PO.

FIG. 19 shows Erosion Score (0-5) for mice treated with 1-5, 1-22, or I-6 in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. †p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (IP); ‡p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle PO; *p<0.05 ANOVA (Dunnett's post-hoc) vs. Vehicle (PO).

FIG. 20 shows Mean Hyperplasia Score (0-5) for mice treated with I-5, I-22, or I-6 in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. †p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (IP); ‡p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle PO; *p<0.05 ANOVA (Dunnett's post-hoc) vs. Vehicle (PO).

FIG. 21 shows Edema Width (μm) for mice treated with I-5, I-22, or I-6 in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. †p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (IP); ‡p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle PO; *p<0.05 ANOVA (Dunnett's post-hoc) vs. Vehicle (PO).

FIG. 22 shows Neutrophil score for mice treated with I-5, I-22, or I-6 in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. †p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (IP); ‡p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle PO.

FIG. 23 shows Mucosal Thickness (μm) for mice treated with I-5, I-22, or I-6 in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. †p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (IP); ‡p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle PO; *p<0.05 ANOVA (Dunnett's post-hoc) vs. Vehicle (PO).

FIG. 24 shows Lymphoid Aggregate Count for mice treated with 1-5, 1-22, or 1-6 in a model of DSS-induced acute UC. †p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle (IP); ‡p<0.05 Student's t-test vs. Vehicle PO.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION 1. Detailed Description

The present disclosure provides compounds capable of reacting with aldehydes for use in methods of treating inflammatory disorders, including systemic inflammatory disorders and ocular inflammatory disorders. The compounds are amino carbinol-containing compounds that are capable of effectively reacting with and “trapping” aldehyde compounds, thus preventing their reaction with biological molecules and interfering with their normal function. The compounds and methods of treating inflammatory disorders with the compounds are described below.

1.1. Definitions

Compounds described herein include those described generally above, and are further illustrated by the classes, subclasses, and species disclosed herein. As used herein, the following definitions shall apply unless otherwise indicated. For purposes of the present disclosure, the chemical elements are identified in accordance with the Periodic Table of the Elements, CAS version, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75^(th) Ed. Additionally, general principles of organic chemistry are described in “Organic Chemistry”, Thomas Sorrell, University Science Books, Sausalito: 1999, and “March's Advanced Organic Chemistry”, 5^(th) Ed., Ed.: Smith, M. B. and March, J., John Wiley & Sons, New York: 2001, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.

The term “aliphatic” or “aliphatic group”, as used herein, means a straight-chain (i.e., unbranched) or branched, substituted or unsubstituted hydrocarbon chain that is completely saturated or that contains one or more units of unsaturation, or a monocyclic hydrocarbon or bicyclic hydrocarbon that is completely saturated or that contains one or more units of unsaturation, but which is not aromatic (also referred to herein as “carbocycle,” “cycloaliphatic” or “cycloalkyl”), that has a single point of attachment to the rest of the molecule. Unless otherwise specified, aliphatic groups contain 1-6 aliphatic carbon atoms. In some embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1-5 aliphatic carbon atoms. In other embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1-4 aliphatic carbon atoms. In still other embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1-3 aliphatic carbon atoms, and in yet other embodiments, aliphatic groups contain 1-2 aliphatic carbon atoms. In some embodiments, “cycloaliphatic” (or “carbocycle” or “cycloalkyl”) refers to a monocyclic C₃-C₆ hydrocarbon that is completely saturated or that contains one or more units of unsaturation, but which is not aromatic, that has a single point of attachment to the rest of the molecule. Suitable aliphatic groups include, but are not limited to, linear or branched, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl groups and hybrids thereof such as (cycloalkyl)alkyl, (cycloalkenyl)alkyl or (cycloalkyl)alkenyl.

The term “lower alkyl” refers to a C₁₋₄ straight or branched alkyl group. Exemplary lower alkyl groups are methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, and tert-butyl.

The term “lower haloalkyl” refers to a C₁₋₄ straight or branched alkyl group that is substituted with one or more halogen atoms.

The term “heteroatom” means one or more of oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, or silicon (including, any oxidized form of nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, or silicon; the quaternized form of any basic nitrogen or; a substitutable nitrogen of a heterocyclic ring, for example N (as in 3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrrolyl), NH (as in pyrrolidinyl) or NR⁺ (as in N-substituted pyrrolidinyl)).

The term “unsaturated,” as used herein, means that a moiety has one or more units of unsaturation.

As used herein, the term “bivalent C₁₋₈ (or C₁₋₆) saturated or unsaturated, straight or branched, hydrocarbon chain”, refers to bivalent alkylene, alkenylene, and alkynylene chains that are straight or branched as defined herein.

The term “alkylene” refers to a bivalent alkyl group. An “alkylene chain” is a polymethylene group, i.e., —(CH₂)_(n)—, wherein n is a positive integer, preferably from 1 to 6, from 1 to 4, from 1 to 3, from 1 to 2, or from 2 to 3. A substituted alkylene chain is a polymethylene group in which one or more methylene hydrogen atoms are replaced with a substituent. Suitable substituents include those described below for a substituted aliphatic group.

The term “alkenylene” refers to a bivalent alkenyl group. A substituted alkenylene chain is a polymethylene group containing at least one double bond in which one or more hydrogen atoms are replaced with a substituent. Suitable substituents include those described below for a substituted aliphatic group.

The term “halogen” means F, Cl, Br, or I.

The term “aryl” used alone or as part of a larger moiety as in “aralkyl,” “aralkoxy,” or “aryloxyalkyl,” refers to monocyclic or bicyclic ring systems having a total of five to fourteen ring members, wherein at least one ring in the system is aromatic and wherein each ring in the system contains 3 to 7 ring members. The term “aryl” may be used interchangeably with the term “aryl ring.” In some embodiments, the term “aryl” used alone or as part of a larger moiety as in “aralkyl,” “aralkoxy,” or “aryloxyalkyl,” refers to monocyclic and bicyclic ring systems having a total of five to 10 ring members, wherein at least one ring in the system is aromatic and wherein each ring in the system contains three to seven ring members. In certain embodiments of the compounds, “aryl” refers to an aromatic ring system which includes, but not limited to, phenyl, biphenyl, naphthyl, anthracyl and the like, which may bear one or more substituents. Also included within the scope of the term “aryl,” as it is used herein, is a group in which an aromatic ring is fused to one or more non-aromatic rings, such as indanyl, phthalimidyl, naphthimidyl, phenanthridinyl, or tetrahydronaphthyl, and the like.

The terms “heteroaryl” and “heteroar-,” used alone or as part of a larger moiety, e.g., “heteroaralkyl,” or “heteroaralkoxy,” refer to groups having 5 to 10 ring atoms, preferably 5, 6, or 9 ring atoms; having 6, 10, or 14 π electrons shared in a cyclic array; and having, in addition to carbon atoms, from one to five heteroatoms. The term “heteroatom” refers to nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur, and includes any oxidized form of nitrogen or sulfur, and any quaternized form of a basic nitrogen. Heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, thienyl, furanyl, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, oxadiazolyl, thiazolyl, isothiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, pyridyl, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, indolizinyl, purinyl, naphthyridinyl, and pteridinyl. The terms “heteroaryl” and “heteroar-”, as used herein, also include groups in which a heteroaromatic ring is fused to one or more aryl, cycloaliphatic, or heterocyclyl rings, where the radical or point of attachment is on the heteroaromatic ring. Nonlimiting examples include indolyl, isoindolyl, benzothienyl, benzofuranyl, dibenzofuranyl, indazolyl, benzimidazolyl, benzthiazolyl, quinolyl, isoquinolyl, cinnolinyl, phthalazinyl, quinazolinyl, quinoxalinyl, 4H-quinolizinyl, carbazolyl, acridinyl, phenazinyl, phenothiazinyl, phenoxazinyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, and pyrido[2,3-b]-1,4-oxazin-3(4H)-one. A heteroaryl group may be mono- or bicyclic. The term “heteroaryl” may be used interchangeably with the terms “heteroaryl ring,” “heteroaryl group,” or “heteroaromatic,” any of which terms include rings that are optionally substituted. The term “heteroaralkyl” refers to an alkyl group substituted by a heteroaryl, wherein the alkyl and heteroaryl portions independently are optionally substituted.

As used herein, the terms “heterocycle,” “heterocyclyl,” “heterocyclic radical,” and “heterocyclic ring” are used interchangeably and refer to a stable 5- to 7-membered monocyclic or 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heterocyclic moiety that is either saturated or partially unsaturated, and having, in addition to carbon atoms, one or more, preferably one to four, heteroatoms, as defined above. When used in reference to a ring atom of a heterocycle, the term “nitrogen” includes a substituted nitrogen. As an example, in a saturated or partially unsaturated ring having 0-3 heteroatoms selected from oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen, the nitrogen may be N (as in 3,4-dihydro-2H-pyrrolyl), NH (as in pyrrolidinyl), or ⁺NR (as in N-substituted pyrrolidinyl).

A heterocyclic ring can be attached to its pendant group at any heteroatom or carbon atom that results in a stable structure and any of the ring atoms can be optionally substituted. Examples of such saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic radicals include, without limitation, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiophenyl pyrrolidinyl, piperidinyl, pyrrolinyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl, oxazolidinyl, piperazinyl, dioxanyl, dioxolanyl, diazepinyl, oxazepinyl, thiazepinyl, morpholinyl, and quinuclidinyl. The terms “heterocycle,” “heterocyclyl,” “heterocyclyl ring,” “heterocyclic group,” “heterocyclic moiety,” and “heterocyclic radical,” are used interchangeably herein, and also include groups in which a heterocyclyl ring is fused to one or more aryl, heteroaryl, or cycloaliphatic rings, such as indolinyl, 3H-indolyl, chromanyl, phenanthridinyl, or tetrahydroquinolinyl, where the radical or point of attachment is on the heterocyclyl ring. A heterocyclyl group may be mono- or bicyclic. The term “heterocyclylalkyl” refers to an alkyl group substituted by a heterocyclyl, wherein the alkyl and heterocyclyl portions independently are optionally substituted.

As used herein, the term “partially unsaturated” refers to a ring moiety that includes at least one double or triple bond. The term “partially unsaturated” is intended to encompass rings having multiple sites of unsaturation, but is not intended to include aryl or heteroaryl moieties, as herein defined.

As described herein, compounds of the disclosure may contain “optionally substituted” moieties. In general, the term “substituted,” whether preceded by the term “optionally” or not, means that one or more hydrogens of the designated moiety are replaced with a suitable substituent. Unless otherwise indicated, an “optionally substituted” group may have a suitable substituent at each substitutable position of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure may be substituted with more than one substituent selected from a specified group, the substituent may be either the same or different at every position. Combinations of substituents envisioned for the compounds herein are preferably those that result in the formation of stable or chemically feasible compounds. The term “stable,” as used herein, refers to compounds that are not substantially altered when subjected to conditions to allow for their production, detection, and, in certain embodiments, their recovery, purification, and use for one or more of the purposes disclosed herein.

Suitable monovalent substituents on a substitutable carbon atom of an “optionally substituted” group are independently halogen, —(CH₂)₀₋₄R^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄OR^(◯); —O(CH₂)₀₋₄R^(◯), —O—(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)OR^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄CH(OR^(◯))₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄SR^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄Ph, which may be substituted with R^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph which may be substituted with R^(◯); —CH═CHPh, which may be substituted with R^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄O(CH₂)₀₋₁-pyridyl which may be substituted with R^(◯); —NO₂; —CN; —N₃; —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(◯))₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(◯))C(O)R^(◯); —N(R^(◯))C(S)R^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(◯))C(O)NR^(◯) ₂; —N(R^(◯))C(S)NR^(◯) ₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄N(R^(◯))C(O)OR^(◯); —N(R^(◯))N(R^(◯))C(O)R^(◯); —N(R^(◯))N(R^(◯))C(O)NR^(◯) ₂; —N(R^(◯))N(R^(◯))C(O)OR^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)R^(◯); —C(S)R^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)OR^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)SR^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)OSiR^(◯) ₃; —(CH₂)₀₋₄OC(O)R^(◯); —OC(O)(CH₂)₀₋₄SR—, SC(S)SR^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄SC(O)R^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄C(O)NR^(◯) ₂; —C(S)NR^(◯) ₂; —C(S)SR^(◯); —SC(S)SR^(◯), —(CH₂)₀₋₄OC(O)NR^(◯) ₂; —C(O)N(OR^(◯))R^(◯); —C(O)C(O)R^(◯); —C(O)CH₂C(O)R^(◯); —C(NOR^(◯))R^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄SSR^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄S(O)₂R^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄S(O)₂OR^(◯); —(CH₂)₀₋₄OS(O)₂R^(◯); —S(O)₂NR^(◯) ₂; —(CH₂)₀₋₄S(O)R^(◯); —N(R^(◯))S(O)₂NR^(◯) ₂; —N(R^(◯))S(O)₂R^(◯); —N(OR^(◯))R^(◯); —C(NH)NR^(◯) ₂; —P(O)₂R^(◯); —P(O)R^(◯) ₂; —OP(O)R^(◯) ₂; —OP(O)(OR^(◯))₂; SiR^(◯) ₃; —(C₁₋₄ straight or branched alkylene)O—N(R^(◯))₂; or —(C₁₋₄ straight or branched alkylene)C(O)O—N(R^(◯))₂, wherein each R^(◯) may be substituted as defined below and is independently hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, —CH₂-(5-6 membered heteroaryl ring), or a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, or, notwithstanding the definition above, two independent occurrences of R^(◯), taken together with their intervening atom(s), form a 3-12-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl mono- or bicyclic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, which may be substituted as defined below.

Suitable monovalent substituents on R^(◯) (or the ring formed by taking two independent occurrences of R^(◯) together with their intervening atoms), are independently halogen, —(CH₂)₀₋₂R^(●), -(haloR^(●)), —(CH₂)₀₋₂OH, —(CH₂)₀₋₂OR^(●), —(CH₂)₀₋₂CH(OR^(●))₂; —O(haloR^(●)), —CN, —N₃, —(CH₂)₀₋₂C(O)R^(●), —(CH₂)₀₋₂C(O)OH, —(CH₂)₀₋₂C(O)OR^(●), —(CH₂)₀₋₂SR^(●), —(CH₂)₀₋₂SH, —(CH₂)₀₋₂NH₂, —(CH₂)₀₋₂NHR^(●), —(CH₂)₀₋₂NR^(●) ₂, —NO₂, —SiR^(●) ₃, —OSiR^(●) ₃, —C(O)SR^(●), —(C₁₋₄ straight or branched alkylene)C(O)OR^(●), or —SSR^(●) wherein each R^(●) is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently selected from C₁₋₄ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, and a 5-6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Suitable divalent substituents on a saturated carbon atom of R^(◯) include ═O and ═S.

Suitable divalent substituents on a saturated carbon atom of an “optionally substituted” group include the following: ═O, ═S, ═NNR*₂, ═NNHC(O)R*, ═NNHC(O)OR*, ═NNHS(O)₂R*, ═NR*, ═NOR*, —O(C(R*₂))₂₋₃O—, or —S(C(R*₂))₂₋₃S—, wherein each independent occurrence of R* is selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, and an unsubstituted 5- to 6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Suitable divalent substituents that are bound to vicinal substitutable carbons of an “optionally substituted” group include: —O(CR*₂)₂₋₃O—, wherein each independent occurrence of R* is selected from hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, and an unsubstituted 5 to 6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Suitable substituents on the aliphatic group of R* include halogen, —R^(●), -(haloR^(●)), —OH, —OR^(●), —O(haloR^(●)), —CN, —C(O)OH, —C(O)OR^(●), —NH₂, —NHR^(●), —NR^(●) ₂, or —NO₂, wherein each R^(●) is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently C₁₋₄ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, or a 5- to 6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Suitable substituents on a substitutable nitrogen of an “optionally substituted” group include —R^(†), —NR^(†) ₂, —C(O)R^(†), —C(O)OR^(†), —C(O)C(O)R^(†), —C(O)CH₂C(O)R^(†), —S(O)₂R^(†), —S(O)₂NR^(†) ₂, —C(S)NR^(†) ₂, —C(NH)NR^(†) ₂, or —N(R^(†))S(O)₂R^(†); wherein each R is independently hydrogen, C₁₋₆ aliphatic which may be substituted as defined below, unsubstituted —OPh, or an unsubstituted 5- to 6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, or, notwithstanding the definition above, two independent occurrences of R^(†), taken together with their intervening atom(s) form an unsubstituted 3- to 12-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl mono- or bicyclic ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Suitable substituents on the aliphatic group of R are independently halogen, —R^(●), -(haloR^(●)), —OH, —OR^(●), —O(haloR^(●)), —CN, —C(O)OH, —C(O)OR^(●), —NH₂, —NHR^(●), —NR^(●) ₂, or —NO₂, wherein each R^(●) is unsubstituted or where preceded by “halo” is substituted only with one or more halogens, and is independently C₁_₄ aliphatic, —CH₂Ph, —O(CH₂)₀₋₁Ph, or a 5- to 6-membered saturated, partially unsaturated, or aryl ring having 0-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to those salts which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of humans and lower animals without undue toxicity, irritation, allergic response and the like, and are commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts are well known in the art. For example, S. M. Berge et al., describe pharmaceutically acceptable salts in detail in J. Pharmaceutical Sciences, 1977, 66, 1-19, incorporated herein by reference. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds of the present disclosure include those derived from suitable inorganic and organic acids and bases. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable, nontoxic acid addition salts are salts of an amino group formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid and perchloric acid or with organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid or malonic acid or by using other methods used in the art such as ion exchange. Other pharmaceutically acceptable salts include adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, besylate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, phosphate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, thiocyanate, p-toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, valerate salts, and the like.

Salts derived from appropriate bases include alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, ammonium and N⁺(C₁₋₄alkyl)₄ salts. Representative alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and the like. Further pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, when appropriate, nontoxic ammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations formed using counterions such as halide, hydroxide, carboxylate, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, lower alkyl sulfonate and aryl sulfonate.

Unless otherwise stated, structures depicted herein are also meant to include all isomeric (e.g., enantiomeric, diastereomeric, and geometric (or conformational)) forms of the structure; for example, the R and S configurations for each asymmetric center, Z and E double bond isomers, and Z and E conformational isomers. Therefore, single stereochemical isomers as well as enantiomeric, diastereomeric, and geometric (or conformational) mixtures of the present compounds are within the scope of the present disclosure. Unless otherwise stated, all tautomeric forms of the compounds described herein are within the scope of the the present disclosure.

As used herein, the terms “treatment,” “treat,” and “treating” refer to reversing, alleviating, delaying the onset of, or inhibiting the progress of a disease or disorder, or one or more symptoms thereof, as described herein. In some embodiments, treatment is administered after one or more symptoms have developed. In some embodiments, treatment is administered in the absence of symptoms. For example, treatment is administered to a susceptible individual prior to the onset of symptoms (e.g., in light of a history of symptoms and/or in light of genetic or other susceptibility factors). Treatment is also continued after symptoms have resolved, for example to prevent, delay or lessen the severity of their recurrence.

1.2. Description of Embodiments

As described above, compounds having amino-carbinol moiety can be used to react with and trap aldehydes. Such aldehydes may be generated as part of an inflammatory response, such that sequestering the aldehydes can ameliorate or attenuate the inflammatory response. Accordingly, in some embodiments, a method of inflammatory disease or disorder in a subject comprises administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of an aldehyde trapping compound. In some embodiments, the compound is selected from the compounds recited in U.S. Pat. No. 7,973,025 and published international patent application nos. WO2014/116836, WO 2018/039192, WO 2018/039197, or WO2017/035077, the entireties of which are incorporated herein by reference. In some embodiments, the inflammatory disease or disorder is a systemic inflammatory disease or disorder. In some embodiments, the inflammatory disease or disorder is an ocular inflammatory disease or disorder.

In some embodiments, a method of treating an inflammatory disease or disorder in a subject comprises administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of formula I:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each W, X, Y, or Z is independently selected from N, O, S, CU, CH and C—NH₂, wherein one of W, X, Y, or Z is C—NH₂;

R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms;

R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms; or R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur;

k is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4;

each U is independently selected from halogen, cyano, —R, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;

two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms can form an optionally substituted fused ring, selected from a fused phenyl ring; a fused 5- to 6-membered saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and a fused 5- to 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and

each R is independently selected from hydrogen, deuterium, and an optionally substituted group selected from C₁₋₆ aliphatic; a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring; phenyl; an 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring; a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; a 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; a 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and a 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

As defined above and described herein, W is independently selected from N, O, S, CU, CH and C—NH₂. In some embodiments, W is N. In some embodiments, W is O. In some embodiments, W is S. In some embodiments, W is CU. In some embodiments, W is CH. In some embodiments, W is C—NH₂.

As defined above and described herein, X is independently selected from N, O, S, CU, CH and C—NH₂. In some embodiments, X is N. In some embodiments, X is O. In some embodiments, X is S. In some embodiments, X is CU. In some embodiments, X is CH. In some embodiments, X is C—NH₂.

As defined above and described herein, Y is independently selected from N, O, S, CU, CH and C—NH₂. In some embodiments, Y is N. In some embodiments, Y is O. In some embodiments, Y is S. In some embodiments, Y is CU. In some embodiments, Y is CH. In some embodiments, Y is C—NH₂.

As defined above and described herein, Z is independently selected from N, O, S, CU, CH and C—NH₂. In some embodiments, Z is N. In some embodiments, Z is O. In some embodiments, Z is S. In some embodiments, Z is CU. In some embodiments, Z is CH. In some embodiments, Z is C—NH₂.

As defined above and described herein, k is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. In some embodiments k is 0. In some embodiments, k is 1. In some embodiments, k is 2. In some embodiments, k is 3. In some embodiments, k is 4.

As defined above and described herein, each U is independently selected from halogen, cyano, —R, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, U is halogen. In some embodiments, U is fluorine. In some embodiments, U is chlorine. In some embodiments, U is bromine.

In some embodiments, U is —R. In some embodiments, U is hydrogen. In some embodiments, U is deuterium. In some embodiments, U is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In some embodiments, U is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring. In some embodiments, U is an optionally substituted 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring. In some embodiments, U is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, U is an optionally substituted 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, U is an optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, U is an optionally substituted 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, U is —S(O)₂R. In some embodiments, U is —S(O)₂CH₃.

In some embodiments, U is an optionally substituted phenyl ring. In some embodiments, U is a phenyl ring, optionally substituted with halogen. In some embodiments, U is a phenyl ring, optionally substituted with fluorine. In some embodiments, U is a phenyl ring, optionally substituted with chlorine.

As defined above and described herein, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms can form an optionally substituted fused ring, selected from a fused phenyl ring; a fused 5- to 6-membered saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and a fused 5- to 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused phenyl ring. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with 1 or more halogen atoms. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with one halogen atom. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with fluorine. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with chlorine. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with 2 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with 2 fluorines. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with 2 chlorines. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with fluorine and chlorine.

In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5- to 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 5- to 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatom. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatom. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatom, optionally substituted with phenyl. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatom, optionally substituted with tosyl. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatom, optionally substituted with C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatom, optionally substituted with C₁₋₆ alkyl. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatom, optionally substituted with cyclopropyl.

In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one sulfur heteroatom. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one sulfur heteroatom. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one sulfur heteroatom, optionally substituted with phenyl.

In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing two nitrogen heteroatoms. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing two nitrogen heteroatoms. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing two nitrogen heteroatoms, optionally substituted with phenyl.

In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen heteroatom. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen heteroatom. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing two nitrogen heteroatoms. In some embodiments, two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing two nitrogen heteroatoms.

In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is quinazolinyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is an optionally substituted quinazolinyl.

In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is quinolinyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is optionally substituted quinolinyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is quinolinyl, optionally substituted with 1-2 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is quinolinyl, optionally substituted with 1 halogen atom. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is quinolinyl, optionally substituted with fluorine. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms quinolinyl, optionally substituted with chlorine.

In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzoxazolyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is optionally substituted benzoxazolyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzoxazolyl, optionally substituted with phenyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzoxazolyl, optionally substituted with phenyl and a halogen atom. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzoxazolyl, optionally substituted with phenyl and chlorine. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzoxazolyl, optionally substituted with tosyl and chlorine.

In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzisoxazolyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is optionally substituted benzisoxazolyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzisoxazolyl, optionally substituted with phenyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzisoxazolyl, optionally substituted with cyclopropyl and a halogen atom. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzisoxazolyl, optionally substituted with cyclopropyl and chlorine.

In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzothiazolyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is optionally substituted benzothiazolyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzothiazolyl, optionally substituted with phenyl.

In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzisothiazolyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is optionally substituted benzisothiazolyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzisothiazolyl, optionally substituted with phenyl.

In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzimidazolyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is optionally substituted benzimidazolyl. In some embodiments, the fused ring system formed by two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms is benzimidazolyl, optionally substituted with phenyl.

In some embodiments, W, X, Y, and Z provide a phenyl ring. In some embodiments, W, X, Y, and Z provide a phenyl ring, substituted with k occurrences of U. In some embodiments where W, X, Y, and Z provide a phenyl ring, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂.

In some embodiments, W, X, Y, and Z provide a pyridinyl ring. In some embodiments, W, X, Y, and Z provide a pyridinyl ring, substituted with k occurrences of U. In some embodiments where W, X, Y, and Z provide a pyridinyl ring, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂, one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; and k is 0. In some embodiments, one of W, X, and Y is —C—NH₂, one or more of the other of W, X, or Y are CH; Z is N; and k is 0.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂, one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 1; and U is halogen. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂, one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 1; and U is fluorine. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂, one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 1; and U is chlorine. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂, one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 1; and U is bromine.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, and Y is —C—NH₂, one or more of the other of W, X, and Y are CH; Z is N; k is 1; and U optionally substituted phenyl. In some embodiments, one of W, X, and Y is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, and Y are CH; Z is N; k is 1; and U is phenyl, optionally substituted with halogen. In some embodiments, one of W, X, and Y is —C—NH₂, one or more of the other of W, X, and Y are CH; Z is N; k is 1; and U is phenyl, optionally substituted with chlorine. In some embodiments, one of W, X, and Y is —C—NH₂, one or more of the other of W, X, and Y are CH; Z is N; k is 1; and U is phenyl, optionally substituted with fluorine.

In some embodiments, W is N; one of X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; the other of X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 1; and U is optionally substituted phenyl. In some embodiments, W is N; one of X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; the other of X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 1; and U is phenyl, optionally substituted with halogen. In some embodiments, W is N; one of X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; the other of X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 1; and U is phenyl, optionally substituted with chlorine. In some embodiments, W is N; one of X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; the other of X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 1; and U is phenyl, optionally substituted with fluorine.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, and Y is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, and Y are CH; Z is N; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, and Y is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, and Y are CH; Z is N; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused phenyl ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, and Y is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, and Y are CH; Z is N; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with halogen. In some embodiments, one of W, X, and Y is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, and Y are CH; Z is N; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with chlorine. In some embodiments, one of W, X, and Y is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, and Y are CH; Z is N; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with fluorine.

In some embodiments, W is N; one of X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; the other of X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring. In some embodiments, W is N; one of X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; the other of X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused phenyl ring. In some embodiments, W is N; one of X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; the other of X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with halogen. In some embodiments, W is N; one of X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; the other of X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with fluorine. In some embodiments, W is N; one of X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; the other of X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with chlorine. In some embodiments, W is N; one of X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; the other of X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with chlorine and fluorine. In some embodiments, W is N; one of X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; the other of X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused phenyl ring, optionally substituted with chlorine at 2 positions.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5- to 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 5- to 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen heteroatom. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused pyridine ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused pyridine ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 6-membered heteroaryl ring containing two nitrogen heteroatoms. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused pyrimidine ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused pyrimidine ring.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form fused aryl ring with 2 heteroatoms. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a 5-membered fused oxazole ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a 5-membered fused oxazole ring, optionally substituted with phenyl.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z is CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatom. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z is CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatoms, optionally substituted with phenyl. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z is CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatoms, optionally substituted with tosyl. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z is CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatoms, optionally substituted with cyclopropyl.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused oxazole ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused oxazole ring, optionally substituted with phenyl. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused oxazole ring, optionally substituted with tosyl.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused isoxazole ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused isoxazole ring, optionally substituted with phenyl. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused isoxazole ring, optionally substituted with cyclopropyl.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one sulfur heteroatom. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z is CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one sulfur heteroatom, optionally substituted by phenyl.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused thiazole ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused thiazole ring, optionally substituted with phenyl.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 5 membered heteroaryl ring containing two nitrogen heteroatoms. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused imidazole ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 2; and the two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused imidazole ring, optionally substituted with phenyl.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 3; U₁ is chlorine and U₂ and U₃ on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatom. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 3; U₁ is chlorine and U₂ and U₃ on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatom, optionally substituted with phenyl. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 3; U₁ is chlorine and U₂ and U₃ on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused 5-membered heteroaryl ring containing one nitrogen and one oxygen heteroatom, optionally substituted with tosyl.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 3; U₁ is chlorine and U₂ and U₃ on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused oxazole ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 3; U₁ is chlorine and U₂ and U₃ on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused oxazole ring, optionally substituted with phenyl. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 3; U₁ is chlorine and U₂ and U₃ on adjacent carbon atoms form a fused oxazole ring, optionally substituted with tosyl.

In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 3; U₁ is chlorine and U₂ and U₃ on adjacent carbon atoms form an optionally substituted fused isoxazole ring. In some embodiments, one of W, X, Y, and Z is —C—NH₂; one or more of the other of W, X, Y, and Z are CH; k is 3; U₁ is chlorine and U₂ and U₃ adjacent carbon atoms form a fused isoxazole ring, optionally substituted with cyclopropyl.

As defined above and described herein, each R is independently selected from hydrogen, deuterium, and an optionally substituted group selected from C₁₋₆ aliphatic; a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring; phenyl; an 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring; a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; a 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; a 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and a 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R is deuterium. In some embodiments, R is C1-6 aliphatic. In some embodiments R is methyl. In some embodiments, R is ethyl. In some embodiments, R is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R is optionally substituted methyl. In some embodiments, R is optionally substituted ethyl. In some embodiments, R is phenyl. In some embodiments, R is optionally substituted phenyl. In some embodiments, R is phenyl, optionally substituted with halogen. In some embodiments, R is phenyl, optionally substituted with fluorine.

As described generally above, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is methyl or ethyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is methyl.

As defined generally above, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is methyl or ethyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is methyl.

As defined generally above, in some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl. In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, or cyclopentyl ring. In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form an oxirane, oxetane, tetrahydrofuran, or aziridine.

In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b) are methyl.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the treatment of an inflammatory disorder is a compound of formula II:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each of R¹, R⁷, and R⁸ is independently H, D, halogen, —NH₂, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or

wherein one of R¹, R⁷, and R⁸ is —NH₂ and other one of R¹ R⁷, and R⁸ is

R² is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;

R³ is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;

R⁴ is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;

R⁵ is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;

R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms;

R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms; or R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and

each R is independently selected from hydrogen, deuterium, and an optionally substituted group selected from C₁₋₆ aliphatic; a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring; phenyl; an 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring; a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; a 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; a 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and a 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments of formula II, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms.

In some embodiments of formula II, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is methyl or ethyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is methyl.

As defined generally above, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms.

In some embodiments of formula II, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms.

In some embodiments of formula II, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is methyl or ethyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is methyl.

As defined generally above, in some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments of formula II, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl. In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments of formula II, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, or cyclopentyl ring. In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form an oxirane, oxetane, tetrahydrofuran, or aziridine.

In some embodiments of formula II, the —NH₂ on one of R¹, R⁷, and R⁸ and the carbinol on the other of R¹, R⁷, and R⁸ are on adjacent carbon atoms of the pyridine moiety.

In some embodiments, the compound is a compound of formula II-a, II-b, or II-c:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each of R¹, R⁷, and R⁸ when present is independently H, D, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or

wherein one of R¹, R⁷, and R⁸ is

and

R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R^(a), R^(b) and R are as defined for formula II.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula II-d, II-e, II-f or II-g:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein;

R¹ and R⁷ is independently H, D, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic; and

R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R^(a), R^(b) and R are as defined for formula II.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula III:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

Q, T and V are independently S, N, O, or —C—R;

-   -   each of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is independently H, D, halogen, —NH₂,         —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or

wherein one of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is —NH₂ and other one of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is

R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms; and

R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms; or R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3-8 membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and

each R is independently selected from hydrogen, deuterium, and an optionally substituted group selected from: C₁₋₆ aliphatic, a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring, phenyl, an 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring, a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, a 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, a 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and a 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments of formula III, the —NH₂ on one of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ and the carbinol on the other of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ are on adjacent carbon atoms of the phenyl moiety.

In some embodiments of formula III, one of Q, T and V is N, and other of Q, T and V is O. In some embodiments, Q is O, V is N, and T is C—R. In some embodiments, Q is N, T is O and V is C—R.

In some embodiments of formula III, the compound is a compound of formula III-a or III-b:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ when present is independently H, D, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or

wherein one of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is

and

Q, T, V, R, R^(a) and R^(b) are as defined in formula III.

In some embodiments of formula III, the compound is a compound of formula III-c, III-d or III-e:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each of R¹, R⁶, and R⁷ when present is independently H, D, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic; and

Q, T, V, R, R^(a) and R^(b) are as defined in formula III.

In some embodiments of formula ITT, the compound is a compound of formula ITT-f, III-g, III-h or ITT-i:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ when present is independently H, D, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic or

wherein one of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is

and

R, R^(a) and R^(b) are as defined in formula III.

In some embodiments of formula III, the compound is a compound of formula III-j, III-k, III-l or III-m:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ when present is independently H, D, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic; and

R, R^(a) and R^(b) are as defined in formula III.

In some embodiments of formula III, the compound is a compound of formula III-n:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is independently H, D, halogen, —NH₂, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic, or

wherein one of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is —NH₂ and other one of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is

and

R, R^(a), and R^(b) are as defined in formula III.

In some embodiments of formula III, the compound is a compound of formula III-o, III-p, III-q or III-r:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   each of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ when present is independently H, D,         halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic,         or

wherein one of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is

and

R, R^(a), and R^(b) are as defined in formula III.

In some embodiments of formula III, the compound is a compound of formula III-s, III-t, III-u, III-v, III-w, or III-x:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each of R¹, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ when present is independently H, D, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic; and

R, R^(a) and R^(b) are as defined in formula III.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula IV:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   Ring A is a 5-membered partially unsaturated heterocyclic or         heteroaromatic ring containing 1-3 nitrogen atoms, 1 or 2 oxygen         atoms, 1 sulfur atom, or 1 nitrogen and 1 sulfur atom; or a         6-membered partially unsaturated heterocyclic or heteroaromatic         ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from         nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; or a 7-membered partially         unsaturated heterocyclic or heteroaromatic ring containing 1-3         heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and         sulfur;     -   R¹ is H, D, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, or optionally substituted         C₁₋₆ aliphatic;     -   each R is independently selected from hydrogen, deuterium, and         an optionally substituted group selected from: C₁₋₆ aliphatic, a         3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic         carbocyclic ring, phenyl, an 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl         ring, a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated         monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms         independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, a 5-         to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms         independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, a 6-         to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated         heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected         from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and a 7- to 10-membered         bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently         selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur;     -   R² is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR,         —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR,         —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R,         —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;     -   R³ is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR,         —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR,         —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R,         —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;     -   R⁴ is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR,         —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR,         —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R,         —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;     -   R⁶ is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3         deuterium or halogen atoms; and     -   R⁷ is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3         deuterium or halogen atoms; or R⁶ and R⁷, taken together with         the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to         8-membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2         heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

As defined generally above, Ring A is a 5-membered partially unsaturated heterocyclic or heteroaromatic ring containing 1-3 nitrogen atoms, 1 or 2 oxygen atoms, 1 sulfur atom, or 1 nitrogen and 1 sulfur atom; or a 6-membered partially unsaturated heterocyclic or heteroaromatic ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; or a 7-membered partially unsaturated heterocyclic or heteroaromatic ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, Ring A is a 5-membered partially unsaturated heterocyclic or heteroaromatic ring containing 1-3 nitrogen atoms, 1 or 2 oxygen atoms, 1 sulfur atom, or 1 nitrogen and 1 sulfur atom. In some embodiments, Ring A is a 6-membered partially unsaturated heterocyclic or heteroaromatic ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, Ring A is a 7-membered partially unsaturated heterocyclic or heteroaromatic ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, Ring A is imidazole or triazole. In some embodiments, Ring A is thiazole. In some embodiments, Ring A is thiophene or furan. In some embodiments, Ring A is pyridine, pyrimidine, pyrazine, pyridazine, or 1,2,4-triazine. In some embodiments, Ring A is pyridine.

As defined generally above, R¹ is H, D, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, or optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic.

In some embodiments, R¹ is H. In some embodiments, R¹ is D. In some embodiments, R¹ is halogen. In some embodiments, R¹ is —CN. In some embodiments, R¹ is —OR. In some embodiments, R¹ is —SR. In some embodiments, R¹ is optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic.

As described generally above, R² is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R² is absent. In some embodiments, R² is —R. In some embodiments, R² is halogen. In some embodiments, R² is —CN. In some embodiments, R² is —OR. In some embodiments, R² is —SR. In some embodiments, R² is —N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R² is —N(R)C(O)R. In some embodiments, R² is —C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R² is —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R² is —N(R)C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R² is —OC(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R² is —N(R)S(O)₂R. In some embodiments, R² is —SO₂N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R² is —C(O)R. In some embodiments, R² is —C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R² is —OC(O)R. In some embodiments, R² is —S(O)R. In some embodiments, R² is —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R² is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R² is deuterium. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted phenyl. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R² is Cl or Br. In some embodiments, R² is Cl.

As defined generally above, R³ is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R³ is absent. In some embodiments, R³ is —R. In some embodiments, R³ is halogen. In some embodiments, R³ is —CN. In some embodiments, R³ is —OR. In some embodiments, R³ is —SR. In some embodiments, R³ is —N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R³ is —N(R)C(O)R. In some embodiments, R³ is —C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R³ is —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R³ is —N(R)C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R³ is —OC(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R³ is —N(R)S(O)₂R. In some embodiments, R³ is —SO₂N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R³ is —C(O)R. In some embodiments, R³ is —C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R³ is —OC(O)R. In some embodiments, R³ is —S(O)R. In some embodiments, R³ is —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R³ is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R³ is deuterium. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted phenyl. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R³ is Cl or Br. In some embodiments, R³ is Cl.

As defined generally above, R⁴ is absent or is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R⁴ is absent. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is halogen. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —CN. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —OR. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —SR. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —N(R)C(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —N(R)C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —OC(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —N(R)S(O)₂R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —SO₂N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —C(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —OC(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —S(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R⁴ is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R⁴ is deuterium. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted phenyl. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R⁴ is Cl or Br. In some embodiments, R⁴ is Cl.

As described generally above, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is methyl or ethyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is methyl.

As defined generally above, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is methyl or ethyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is methyl.

As defined generally above, in some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl. In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, or cyclopentyl ring. In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form an oxirane, oxetane, tetrahydrofuran, or aziridine.

In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b) are methyl.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula V:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   R² is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂,         —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR,         —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R,         —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;     -   each R is independently selected from hydrogen, deuterium, and         an optionally substituted group selected from: C₁₋₆ aliphatic, a         3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic         carbocyclic ring, phenyl, an 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl         ring, a 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated         monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms         independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, a 5-         to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms         independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur, a 6-         to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated         heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected         from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; or a 7- to 10-membered         bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently         selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur;     -   R³ is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂,         —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR,         —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R,         —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;     -   R⁴ is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂,         —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR,         —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R,         —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;     -   R⁵ is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂,         —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR,         —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R,         —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R;     -   R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3         deuterium or halogen atoms; and     -   R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3         deuterium or halogen atoms; or R^(a) and R^(b), taken together         with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to         8-membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2         heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

As described generally above, R² is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R² is —R. In some embodiments, R² is halogen. In some embodiments, R² is —CN. In some embodiments, R² is —OR. In some embodiments, R² is —SR. In some embodiments, R² is —N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R² is —N(R)C(O)R. In some embodiments, R² is —C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R² is —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R² is —N(R)C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R² is —OC(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R² is —N(R)S(O)₂R. In some embodiments, R² is —SO₂N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R² is —C(O)R. In some embodiments, R² is —C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R² is —OC(O)R. In some embodiments, R² is —S(O)R. In some embodiments, R² is —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R² is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R² is deuterium. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted phenyl. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R² is an optionally substituted 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R² is Cl or Br. In some embodiments, R² is Cl.

As defined generally above, R³ is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R³ is —R. In some embodiments, R³ is halogen. In some embodiments, R³ is —CN. In some embodiments, R³ is —OR. In some embodiments, R³ is —SR. In some embodiments, R³ is —N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R³ is —N(R)C(O)R. In some embodiments, R³ is —C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R³ is —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R³ is —N(R)C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R³ is —OC(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R³ is —N(R)S(O)₂R. In some embodiments, R³ is —SO₂N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R³ is —C(O)R. In some embodiments, R³ is —C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R³ is —OC(O)R. In some embodiments, R³ is —S(O)R. In some embodiments, R³ is —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R³ is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R³ is deuterium. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted phenyl. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur. In some embodiments, R³ is an optionally substituted 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R³ is Cl or Br. In some embodiments, R³ is Cl.

As defined generally above, R⁴ is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R⁴ is —R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is halogen. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —CN. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —OR. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —SR. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —N(R)C(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —N(R)C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —OC(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —N(R)S(O)₂R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —SO₂N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —C(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —OC(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —S(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R⁴ is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R⁴ is deuterium. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted phenyl. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R⁴ is an optionally substituted 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R⁴ is Cl or Br. In some embodiments, R⁴ is Cl.

As defined generally above, R⁵ is selected from —R, halogen, —CN, —OR, —SR, —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR, —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R, —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R⁵ is —R. In some embodiments, R⁵ is halogen. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —CN. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —OR. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —SR. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —N(R)C(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —N(R)C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —OC(O)N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —N(R)S(O)₂R. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —SO₂N(R)₂. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —C(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —C(O)OR. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —OC(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —S(O)R. In some embodiments, R⁵ is —S(O)₂R.

In some embodiments, R⁵ is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R⁵ is deuterium. In some embodiments, R⁵ is an optionally substituted C₁₋₆ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R⁵ is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic ring. In some embodiments, R⁵ is an optionally substituted phenyl. In some embodiments, R⁵ is an optionally substituted 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring. In some embodiments, R⁵ is an optionally substituted 3- to 8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R⁵ is an optionally substituted 5- to 6-membered monocyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R⁵ is an optionally substituted 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, R⁵ is an optionally substituted 7- to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R⁵ is Cl or Br. In some embodiments, R⁵ is Cl.

As described generally above, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is methyl or ethyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is methyl.

As defined generally above, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is methyl or ethyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is methyl.

As defined generally above, in some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl. In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a 3- to -membered heterocyclyl ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form a cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, or cyclopentyl ring. In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they are attached, form an oxirane, oxetane, tetrahydrofuran, or aziridine.

In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b) are methyl.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in treatment of an inflammatory disorder is a compound of formula VI-a, VI-b, VI-c, or VI-d:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each of R, R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R^(a), and R^(b) is as defined is as defined above and described in embodiments herein, both singly and in combination.

In some embodiments, the compound is of formula VI-a above.

In some embodiments, R¹ and R⁴ are H.

In some embodiments, R² is H.

In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b) are C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms, or R^(a) and R^(b) are taken together with the carbon to which they are attached to form a 3-8 membered cycloalkyl ring.

In some embodiments, R³ is H, C₁₋₄ alkyl, halogen, —NR, —OR, —SR, —CO₂R, or —C(O)R, wherein R is H, optionally substituted C₁₋₄ alkyl, or optionally substituted phenyl.

In another aspect, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula VI-e, VI-f, VI-g, or VI-h:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   each of R, R¹, R², R³, and R⁴ is as defined is as defined above         and described in embodiments herein, both singly and in         combination.

In another aspect, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula VI-i, VI-j, VI-k, VI-l, VI-m, or VI-n:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   each of R, R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R^(a), and R^(b) is as defined is as         defined above and described in embodiments herein, both singly         and in combination.

In another aspect, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula VII-a:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   each of R, R³, R^(a), and R^(b) is as defined is as defined         above and described in embodiments herein, both singly and in         combination.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula I selected from those depicted in Table 1a, below:

TABLE 1a Exemplary Compounds of Formula I

I-1

I-2

I-3

I-4

I-5

I-6

I-7

I-8

I-9

I-10

I-11

I-12

I-13

I-14

I-15

I-16

I-17

I-18

I-19

I-20

I-21

I-22

I-23

I-24

I-25

I-26

I-27

I-28

I-29

I-30

I-31

I-32

I-33

I-34

I-35

I-36

I-37

I-38

I-39

I-40

I-41

I-42

I-43

I-44

I-45

I-46

I-47

I-48

I-49

I-50

I-51

I-52

In some embodiments, the compound is selected from

In another aspect, the present invention provides a compound selected from these depicted in Table 1b, below.

TABLE 1b Representative Compounds of Formula IV

I-49

I-48

I-53

I-54

I-50

I-41

I-52

I-22

I-39

I-7

I-8 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, compound for use in the method is a compound of formula VIII:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   each Q, T, and V is independently selected from N or NH, S, O, CU,     and CH;

-   represents two double bonds within the ring, which comply with the     valency requirements of the atoms and heteroatoms present in the     ring; -   k is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; -   R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3     deuterium or halogen atoms; -   R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3     deuterium or halogen atoms; or -   R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they     are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl     ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and     sulfur; -   each U is independently selected from halogen, cyano, —R, —OR, —SR,     —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR,     —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R,     —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R; -   two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms can form an optionally     substituted fused ring, selected from a fused phenyl ring; a fused     5- to 6-membered saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic     ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from     nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and a fused 5- to 6-membered     heteroaryl ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected     from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and -   each R is independently selected from hydrogen, deuterium, or an     optionally substituted group selected from C₁₋₆ aliphatic; a 3- to     8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic     ring; phenyl; an 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring; a 3- to     8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic     heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from     nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur; a 5- to 6-membered monocyclic     heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from     nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; a 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated     or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms     independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; or a 7- to     10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms     independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Each k, U, and R is as defined and described above.

As defined above and described herein, Q is selected from N or NH, S, O, CU, and CH. In some embodiments, Q is selected from N or NH, S, O, CU, and CH. In some embodiments, Q is N or NH. In some embodiments, Q is S. In some embodiments, Q is O. In some embodiments, Q is CU. In some embodiments, Q is CH.

As defined above and described herein, T is selected from N or NH, S, O, CU, and CH. In some embodiments, T is selected from N or NH, S, O, CU, and CH. In some embodiments, T is N or NH. In some embodiments, T is S. In some embodiments, T is O. In some embodiments, T is CU. In some embodiments, T is CH.

As defined above and described herein, V is selected from N or NH, S, O, CU, and CH. In some embodiments, V is selected from N or NH, S, O, CU, and CH. In some embodiments, V is N or NH. In some embodiments, V is S. In some embodiments, V is O. In some embodiments, V is CU. In some embodiments, V is CH.

As defined above and described herein, k is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. In some embodiments k is 0. In some embodiments, k is 1. In some embodiments, k is 2. In some embodiments, k is 3. In some embodiments, k is 4.

As defined above and described herein,

represents two double bonds within the ring, which comply with the valency requirements of the atoms and heteroatoms present in the ring. In some embodiments, the ring formed is thiophene. In some embodiments, the ring formed is oxazole. In some embodiments, the ring formed is isothiazole.

In some embodiments, one or more of Q and V are CH; T is S;

is arranged to form a thiophene; and k is 0. In some embodiments, one or more of Q is CH; T is N or NH; V is O;

is arranged to form an isoxazole; and k is 0. In some embodiments, one or more of Q is S; T and V are CH;

is arranged to form a thiophene; k is 1; and U is —S(O)₂R. In some embodiments, one or more of Q is S; T and V are CH;

is arranged to form a thiophene; k is 1; and U is —S(O)₂CH₃. In some embodiments, one or more of Q is CH; T is N or NH; V is S;

is arranged to form an isothiazole; and k is 0.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula VIII is selected from those depicted in Table 2, below:

TABLE 2 Exemplary Compounds of Formula VIII

VIII-1

VIII-2

VIII-3

VIII-4

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula IX-A or IX-B:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   k is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4; -   R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3     deuterium or halogen atoms; -   R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3     deuterium or halogen atoms; or -   R^(a) and R^(b), taken together with the carbon atom to which they     are attached, form a 3- to 8-membered cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl     ring containing 1-2 heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and     sulfur; -   each U is independently selected from halogen, cyano, —R, —OR, —SR,     —N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)R, —C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)C(O)OR,     —OC(O)N(R)₂, —N(R)S(O)₂R, —SO₂N(R)₂, —C(O)R, —C(O)OR, —OC(O)R,     —S(O)R, and —S(O)₂R; -   two occurrences of U on adjacent carbon atoms can form an optionally     substituted fused ring, selected from a fused phenyl ring; a fused     5- to 6-membered saturated or partially unsaturated heterocyclic     ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from     nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; or a fused 5- to 6-membered heteroaryl     ring containing 1-3 heteroatoms independently selected from     nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and -   each R is independently selected from hydrogen, deuterium, and an     optionally substituted group selected from C₁₋₆ aliphatic; a 3- to     8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic carbocyclic     ring; phenyl; an 8- to 10-membered bicyclic aryl ring; a 3- to     8-membered saturated or partially unsaturated monocyclic     heterocyclic ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from     nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; a 5- to 6-membered monocyclic     heteroaryl ring having 1-4 heteroatoms independently selected from     nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; a 6- to 10-membered bicyclic saturated     or partially unsaturated heterocyclic ring having 1-5 heteroatoms     independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur; and a 7-     to 10-membered bicyclic heteroaryl ring having 1-5 heteroatoms     independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Each of k, U, and R is as defined and described above.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae IX-A or IX-B selected from those depicted in Table 3, below:

TABLE 3 Exemplary Compounds of Formula IX

IX-1

IX-2

1.3. Deuterated Compounds

In some embodiments, the compound is a deuterated form of a compound above or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula X:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂;

R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or -CD₃; and

R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ are each independently selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

provided that at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula X-A:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂;

R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or -CD₃; and

R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ are each independently selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

provided that at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae XI-A or XI-B:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂;

R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or -CD₃; and

R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ are each independently selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

provided that at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ in formula XI-A is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae XII-A, XII-B, or XII-C:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂;

R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or -CD₃; and

R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ are each independently selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

provided that at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula XIII:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂;

R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or -CD₃; and

R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ are each independently selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

provided that at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula XIV:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂;

R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or -CD₃; and

R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ are each independently selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

provided that at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae XV-A or XV-B:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each A is independently hydrogen or deuterium;

R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂;

R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium; and

R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ are each independently selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

provided that at least one of A, R¹, R², R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae XVI-A or XVI-B:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each A is independently hydrogen or deuterium;

R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂;

R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or -CD₃; and

R⁸ is selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae XVII-A or XVII-B:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

each A is independently hydrogen or deuterium;

R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂;

R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or -CD₃; and

R⁵ and R⁸ are each independently selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

provided that at least one of A, R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula XVIII-A or XVIII-B:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂;

R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or -CD₃; and

R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ are each independently selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

provided that at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula XIX:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂;

R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

R³ and R⁴ are independently selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or -CD₃; and

R⁵ and R⁶ are each independently selected from hydrogen or deuterium;

provided that at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, or R⁶ is or contains deuterium.

The following embodiments are applicable to each of the preceding formulae X-XIX.

As defined above and described herein, R¹ is selected from —NH₂, —NHD, or -ND₂.

In some embodiments, R¹ is —NH₂. In some embodiments, R¹ is —NH₂ and at least one of R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, R¹ is —NHD. In some embodiments, R¹ is —NHD and at least one of R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, R¹ is —ND₂. In some embodiments, R¹ is —ND₂ and at least one of R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

As defined above and described herein, A is selected from hydrogen or deuterium.

In some embodiments, A is hydrogen. In some embodiments, A is hydrogen and at least one of R¹, R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium. In some embodiments, A is deuterium. In some embodiments, A is deuterium and at least one of R¹, R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

As defined above and described herein, R² is selected from hydrogen or deuterium.

In some embodiments, R² is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R² is hydrogen and at least one of R¹, R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium. In some embodiments, R² is deuterium. In some embodiments, R² is deuterium and at least one of R¹, R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

As defined above and described herein, R³ is selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or —CD₃.

In some embodiments, R³ is —CH₃. In some embodiments, R³ is —CH₃ and at least one of R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, R³ is —CH₂D. In some embodiments, R³ is —CH₂D and at least one of R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, R³ is —CHD₂. In some embodiments, R³ is —CHD₂ and at least one of R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, R³ is —CD₃. In some embodiments, R³ is —CD₃ and at least one of R¹, R², R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

As defined above and described herein, R⁴ is selected from —CH₃, —CH₂D, —CHD₂, or -CD₃.

In some embodiments, R⁴ is —CH₃. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —CH₃ and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, R⁴ is —CH₂D. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —CH₂D and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, R⁴ is —CHD₂. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —CHD₂ and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, R⁴ is —CD₃. In some embodiments, R⁴ is —CD₃ and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

As defined above and described herein, R⁵ is selected from hydrogen or deuterium.

In some embodiments, R⁵ is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R⁵ is hydrogen and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium. In some embodiments, R⁵ is deuterium. In some embodiments, R⁵ is deuterium and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁶, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

As defined above and described herein, R⁶ is selected from hydrogen or deuterium.

In some embodiments, R⁶ is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R⁶ is hydrogen and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium. In some embodiments, R⁶ is deuterium. In some embodiments, R⁶ is deuterium and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁷, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium.

As defined above and described herein, R⁷ is selected from hydrogen or deuterium.

In some embodiments, R⁷ is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R⁷ is hydrogen and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, or R⁸ is or contains deuterium. In some embodiments, R⁷ is deuterium. In some embodiments, R⁷ is deuterium and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, or R⁷ is or contains deuterium.

As defined above and described herein, R⁸ is selected from hydrogen or deuterium.

In some embodiments, R⁸ is hydrogen. In some embodiments, R⁸ is hydrogen and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, or R⁷ is or contains deuterium. In some embodiments, R⁸ is deuterium. In some embodiments, R⁸ is deuterium and at least one of R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, or R⁷ is or contains deuterium.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae X, X-A, XI-A, XI-B, XII-A, XII-B, XII-C, XIII, or XIV, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is as defined above and described herein, and wherein each of R¹ and R² is as defined in an entry set forth in Table 4a, below.

TABLE 4a Exemplary Compounds of Formulae X, X-A, XI-A, XI-B, XII-A, XII-B, XII-C, XIII, or XIV Entry R¹ R² i —NH₂ H ii —NH₂ D iii —NHD H iv —NHD D v —ND₂ H vi —ND₂ D

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae X, X-A, XI-A, XI-B, XII-A, XII-B, XII-C, XIII, or XIV, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of R¹, R², R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is as defined above and described herein, and wherein each of R³ and R⁴ is as defined in an entry set forth in Table 4b, below.

TABLE 4b Exemplary Compounds of Formulae X, X-A, XI-A, XI-B, XII-A, XII-B, XII-C, XIII, or XIV Entry R³ R⁴ i —CH₃ —CH3 ii —CH₃ —CH₂D iii —CH₃ —CHD₂ iv —CH₃ —CD₃ v —CH₂D —CH₃ vi —CH₂D —CH₂D vii —CH₂D —CHD₂ viii —CH₂D —CD₃ ix —CHD₂ —CH₃ x —CHD₂ —CH₂D xi —CHD₂ —CHD₂ xii —CHD₂ —CD₃ xiii —CD₃ —CH₃ xiv —CD₃ —CH₂D xv —CD₃ —CHD₂ xvi —CD₃ —CD₃

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae X, X-A, XI-A, XI-B, XII-A, XII-B, XII-C, XIII, or XIV, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of R¹, R², R³, and R⁴ is as defined above and described herein, and wherein each of R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸ is as defined in an entry set forth in Table 4c, below.

TABLE 4c Exemplary Compounds of Formulae X, X-A, XI-A, XI-B, XII-A, XII-B, XII-C, XIII, or XIV Entry R⁵ R⁶ R⁷ R⁸ i H H H H ii H H H D iii H H D H iv H D H H v D H H H vi H H D D vii H D H D viii D H H D ix H D D H x D H D H xi D D H H xii H D D D xiii D H D D xiv D D H D xv D D D H xvi D D D D

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae X, X-A, XI-A, XI-B, XII-A, XII-B, XII-C, XIII, or XIV, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein each of R¹ and R² is as defined in an entry set forth in Table 4a, above, each of R³ and R⁴ is as defined in an entry set forth in Table 4b, above, and each of R⁵, R⁶, R⁷, and R⁸, is as defined in an entry set forth in Table 4c, above.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound selected from those recited in any of Table 4a, Table 4b, or Table 4c, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula X selected from these depicted in Table 5, below.

TABLE 5 Representative Compounds of Formula X

X-1

X-2

X-3

X-4

X-5

X-6

X-7

X-8

X-9

X-10

X-11

X-12

X-13

X-14

X-15

X-16

X-17

X-18

X-19

X-20

X-21

X-22

X-23

X-24

X-25

X-26

X-27

X-28

X-29

X-30

X-31

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound depicted in Table 5, above, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides a deuterium-enriched analogue of a compound depicted in Table 6, below, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, in which deuterium is enriched at any available hydrogen.

TABLE 6 Representative Compounds of Formula X

X-32

X-33

X-34

X-35

X-36

X-37

X-38

X-39

X-40

X-41

X-42

X-43

X-44

X-45

X-46

X-47

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is any compound described herein comprising one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven, twelve, or thirteen deuterium atoms.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is any compound described above and herein in isolated form. As used herein, the term “isolated” means that a compound is provide in a form that is separated from other compounds that might be present in the usual environment of that compound. In some embodiments, an isolated compound is in solid form. In some embodiments, provided compounds comprise deuterium in an amount of about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 100%. As used herein in the context of deuterium enrichment, the term “about” means±2%.

1.4. Other Compounds

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula XX:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R¹ is H, D, or halogen;

R² is H, D, or halogen;

R³ is H, D, Br, or I;

R⁴ is H, D, or halogen;

R⁵ is H, D, or halogen;

R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms; and

R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms.

As defined generally above, R¹ is H, D, or halogen.

In some embodiments, R¹ is H. In some embodiments, R¹ is D. In some embodiments, R¹ is halogen. In some embodiments, R¹ is Cl. In some embodiments, R¹ is Br.

As defined generally above, R² is H, D, or halogen.

In some embodiments, R² is H. In some embodiments, R² is D. In some embodiments, R² is halogen. In some embodiments, R² is Cl. In some embodiments, R² is Br.

As defined generally above, R³ is H, D, Br, or I.

In some embodiments, R³ is H. In some embodiments, R³ is D. In some embodiments, R³ is Br. In some embodiments, R³ is I.

As defined generally above, R⁴ is H, D, or halogen.

In some embodiments, R⁴ is H. In some embodiments, R⁴ is D. In some embodiments, R⁴ is halogen. In some embodiments, R⁴ is Cl. In some embodiments, R⁴ is Br.

As defined generally above, R⁵ is H, D, or halogen.

In some embodiments, R⁵ is H. In some embodiments, R⁵ is D. In some embodiments, R⁵ is halogen. In some embodiments, R⁵ is Cl. In some embodiments, R⁵ is Br.

As defined generally above, R⁶ is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R^(a) is C₁₋₄ alkyl. In some embodiments, R^(a) is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, or isopropyl. In some embodiments, R^(a) is methyl.

As defined generally above, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, R⁷ is C₁₋₄ aliphatic substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl. In some embodiments, R^(b) is C₁₋₄ alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 fluorine atoms. In some embodiments, R^(b) is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, or isopropyl. In some embodiments, R^(b) is methyl.

In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b) are methyl or ethyl. In some embodiments, R^(a) and R^(b) are methyl.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula XX-a:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   each of R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R^(a), and R^(b) is as defined is as         defined above and described in embodiments herein, both singly         and in combination.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula XX-b:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   each of R², R⁴, R⁵, R^(a), and R^(b) is as defined is as defined         above and described in embodiments herein, both singly and in         combination.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, or XX-f:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   each of R², R⁴, R⁵, R^(a), and R^(b) is as defined is as defined         above and described in embodiments herein, both singly and in         combination.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, or XX-j:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   each of R², R⁴, R⁵, R^(a), and R^(b) is as defined is as defined         above and described in embodiments herein, both singly and in         combination.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formulae XX-k or XX-l:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

-   -   each of R^(a) and R^(b) is as defined is as defined above and         described in embodiments herein, both singly and in combination.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula I-5:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, in combination with at least one compound of formula XX:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein:

R¹ is H, D, or halogen;

R² is H, D, or halogen;

R³ is H, D, Br, or I;

R⁴ is H, D, or halogen;

R⁵ is H, D, or halogen;

R^(a) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms; and

R^(b) is C₁₋₄ aliphatic optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 deuterium or halogen atoms.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and at least one compound according to formulae XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and a compound selected from the following, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof:

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and one additional compound selected from XX-1, XX-2, XX-3, XX-4, or XX-5; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and two additional compounds selected from XX-1, XX-2, XX-3, XX-4, or XX-5; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and three additional compounds selected from XX-1, XX-2, XX-3, XX-4, or XX-5; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and four additional compounds selected from XX-1, XX-2, XX-3, XX-4, or XX-5; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and one additional compound selected from XX-2, XX-3, or XX-4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and two additional compounds selected from XX-2, XX-3, or XX-4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In some embodiments, the composition comprises XX-2, XX-3, and XX-4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and XX-l; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and XX-2; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and XX-3; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and XX-4; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and XX-5; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound of formula XX selected from those depicted in Table 7, below.

TABLE 7 Representative Compounds of Formula XX

XX-1

XX-2

XX-3

XX-4

XX-5

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is a compound depicted in Table 7, above, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In some embodiments, the compound for use in the method is any compound described above and herein in isolated form. As used herein, the term “isolated” means that a compound is provided in a form that is separated from other components that might be present in the usual environment of that compound. In certain embodiments, an isolated compound is in solid form. In some embodiments, an isolated compound is at least about 50% pure as determined by a suitable HPLC method. In certain embodiments, an isolated compound is at least about 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.95%, 99.99%, or 99.999% as determined by a suitable HPLC method. Methods of preparation applicable to certain compounds of the invention are disclosed in US 2013/0190500, published Jul. 25, 2013, which is hereby incorporated by reference.

In certain embodiments, the compound for use in the method is any compound described above and herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof.

In other embodiments, the composition for use in the method contains a compound of any one of formulae XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, in an amount of at least about 97, 97.5, 98, 98.5, 99.0, 99.5, 99.8, 99.9, 99.95, or 99.999 weight percent where the percentages are based on the free base of said compound and the total weight of the composition. In other embodiments, the composition contains no more than about 2.0 area percent HPLC of total organic impurities or, in other embodiments, no more than about 1.5, 1.25, 1, 0.75, 0.5, 0.25, 0.2, 0.1, 0.01, 0.005, or 0.001 area percent HPLC total organic impurities relative to the total area of the HPLC chromatogram.

In other embodiments, a composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5 or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, at least one compound of formulae XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In some embodiments, the composition contains the compound of formula I-5 or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof in an amount of about 1 weight percent to about 99 weight percent, where the percentages are based on the free base of said compound and on the total weight of the composition. In other embodiments, the composition contains no more than about 2.0 area percent HPLC of total organic impurities or, in other embodiments, no more than about 1.5, 1.25, 1, 0.75, 0.5, 0.25, 0.2, 0.1, 0.01, 0.005, or 0.001 area percent HPLC total organic impurities relative to the total area of the HPLC chromatogram.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5 or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and a compound of formulae XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein the compound of formula I-5 or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof comprises about 98% and the compound of formulae XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof comprises about 2% of the total weight of the compounds or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof taken together or of the total HPLC peak area of the compounds or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof taken together. In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5 or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and a compound of formulae XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein the compound of formula I-5 or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof comprises about 99%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.95%, 99.99%, or 99.999%, and the compound of formulae XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-1, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof comprises about 1%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, or 0.001%, of the total weight of the compounds or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof taken together or of the total HPLC peak area of the compounds or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof taken together. In some embodiments, the compound of formulae XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof comprises about 100 ppm, 50 ppm, 10 ppm, 1 ppm, 500 ppb, 100 ppb, or 10 ppb of the total weight of the compounds or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof taken together.

In some embodiments, the composition for use in the method comprises a compound of formula I-5 or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and a compound of formulae XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein the compound of formula I-5 or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof comprises about 99%-99.9999%, 99.5-99.99990%, 99.6-99.99999%, 99.7-99.99999%, 99.8-99.9999%, 99.9-99.99999%, 99.95-99.99999%, 99.99-99.99999%, or 99.999-99.9999%, and the compound of formulae XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof comprises about 10 ppm to 2%, 100 ppm to 1%, 0.0001-0.5%, 0.0001-0.4%, 0.0001-0.3%, 0.0001-0.2%, 0.0001-0.1%, 0.0001-0.05%, 0.0001-0.01%, or 0.0001-0.001% of the total weight of the compounds or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof taken together.

In some embodiments, the compound of formula I-5 or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof and the compound of formula XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, are present in a ratio of about 98:2, 99:1, 99.5:0.5, 99.6:0.4, 99.7:0.3, 99.8:0.2, 99.9:0.1, 99.95:0.05, 99.99:0.01, or 99.999:0.001.

In some embodiments, the compound of any of formulae XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, comprises about 0.01-0.20 area percent of the HPLC chromatogram relative to the compound of formula I-5 or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In some embodiments, the compound of formulae XX, XX-a, XX-b, XX-c, XX-d, XX-e, XX-f, XX-g, XX-h, XX-i, XX-j, XX-k, or XX-l, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, comprises about 0.02-0.18, 0.03-0.16, 0.05-0.15, 0.075-0.13, 0.09-0.1, 0.1-0.2, or 0.15-0.2 area percent of the HPLC chromatogram relative to the compound of formula I-5 or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In some embodiments, the foregoing area percentages of the HPLC chromatogram are measured relative to the total area of the HPLC chromatogram.

In some embodiments, the present invention provides any compound described above and herein in isolated form. As used herein, the term “isolated” means that a compound is provided in a form that is separated from other components that might be present in that compound's usual environment. In certain embodiments, an isolated compound is in solid form. In some embodiments, an isolated compound is at least about 50% pure as determined by a suitable HPLC method. In certain embodiments, an isolated compound is at least about 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, 99.6%, 99.7%, 99.8%, 99.9%, 99.95%, 99.99%, or 99.999% as determined by a suitable HPLC method. Methods of preparation applicable to certain compounds of the invention are disclosed in US 2013/0190500, published Jul. 25, 2013, which is hereby incorporated by reference.

1.5. Diseases and Indications

As discussed above, the compounds of the disclosure are used to treat inflammatory disorders. In some embodiments, the compound is administered in a therapeutically effective amount to a subject to treat a systemic inflammatory disorder. In some embodiments, the systemic inflammatory disorder is non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), inflammatory bowl disease (IBD), Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis (UC), psoriasis, IBS (irritable bowel syndrome or spastic colon), ankylosing spondylitis, osteoporosis, rheumatoid arthritis (RA), psoriatic arthritis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), atherosclerosis, pulmonary arterial hypertension, pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy, atopic dermatitis, rosacea, multiple sclerosis (MS), systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), lupus nephritis, sepsis, eosinophilic esophagitis, chronic kidney disease (CKD), fibrotic renal disease, chronic eosinophilic pneumonia, extrinsic allergic alveolitis, pre-eclampsia, endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), reduced female fertility, reduced sperm viability and motility, or cyclophosphamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is used to treat a systemic disease, disorder, or condition. In some embodiments, the systemic disease, disorder, or condition is light chain deposition disease, IgA nephropathy, end-stage renal disease, gout, pseudogout, diabetic nephrophathy, diabetic neuropathy, traumatic brain injury, noise-induced hearing loss, Alzheimer's Disease, Parkinson's Disease, Huntington Disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, primary biliary cirrhosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, uterine leiomyoma, sarcoidosis, or chronic kidney disease.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat inflammatory bowl disease (IBD).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat Crohn's disease.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat ulcerative colitis (UC).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat psoriasis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat IBS (irritable bowel syndrome) or spastic colon.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat ankylosing spondylitis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat osteoporosis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat psoriatic arthritis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat atherosclerosis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat pulmonary arterial hypertension.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat pyridoxine-dependent epilepsy.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat atopic dermatitis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat rosacea.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat multiple sclerosis (MS).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat lupus nephritis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat sepsis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat eosinophilic esophagitis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat chronic kidney disease (CKD).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat fibrotic renal disease.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat chronic eosinophilic pneumonia.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat extrinsic allergic alveolitis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat pre-eclampsia.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat endometriosis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat reduced female fertility.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat reduced sperm viability and motility.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat cyclophosphamide-induced hemorrhagic cystitis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of light chain deposition disease.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of IgA nephropathy.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of end-stage renal disease.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of gout.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of pseudogout.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of diabetic nephrophathy.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of diabetic neurophathy.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of traumatic brain injury.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of noise-induced hearing loss.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of Alzheimer's disease.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of Parkinson's disease.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of Huntington's disease.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of primary biliary cirrhosis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of primary sclerosing cholangitis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of uterine leiomyoma.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of sarcoidosis.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for treatment and/or prevention of chronic kidney disease.

In some embodiments, the inflammatory disorder is an ocular inflammatory disorder. In some embodiments, the ocular inflammatory disorder is diabetic macular edema (DME), atopic keratoconjunctivitis (AKC), vernal keratoconjunctivitis (VKC), age-related macular degeneration (AMD), dry eye disease (DED), allergic conjunctivitis (AC), dry eye disease with allergic conjunctivitis, noninfectious anterior uveitis, posterior uveitis, pan-uveitis, post-surgical ocular pain and inflammation.

In some embodiments, the compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for the prevention of corneal fibrosis after radial keratotomy, prevention of corneal fibrosis after trauma, or prevention of corneal fibrosis after infection.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat diabetic macular edema (DME). In some embodiments, the diabetic macular edema for treatment is non-clinically significant macular edema (Non-CSME). In some embodiments, the diabetic macular edema for treatment is clinically significant macular edema (CSME).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat uveitis, including pan-uveitis, anterior uveitis, posterior uveitis, and non-infectious uveitis, which are ocular disorders that can be secondary to a primary underlying disorder. Some of the disorders with which uveitis is sometimes associated are Behçet's syndrome, ankylosing spondylitis, Lyme disease, sarcoidosis, and psoriasis. Uveitis is an inflammation of the iris, ciliary body, and choroid. It is associated with blurred vision; seeing dark, floating spots (“floaters”); eye pain; redness of the eye; and sensitivity to light (photophobia). A standard course of therapy for uveitis is a topical corticosteroid, and in some instances, a dilator such a cyclopentolate, or an immunomodulatory agent.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat atopic keratoconjunctivitis (AKC) or vernal keratoconjunctivitis (VKC).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat dry eye disease (DED).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat allergic conjunctivitis (AC).

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat DED with AC.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount to treat post-surgical ocular pain and inflammation.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for prevention of corneal fibrosis after radial keratotomy.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for prevention of corneal fibrosis after trauma.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, is administered in an effective amount for prevention of corneal fibrosis after infection.

In some embodiments, the compound for treating each of the inflammatory diseases or conditions above is a compound of formulae I to XX or subformulae thereof as described above, including any one of the exemplary compounds of Table 1a, Table 1b, Table 2, Table 3, Table 4, Table 5, Table 6, Table 7, or the other tables above. In some embodiments, a method of the inflammatory disorder comprises administering to a subject in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of compound I-22, 1-5 or 1-6 of Table 1a or Table 1b, such as compound I-22.

1.6. Combination Treatments

In some embodiments, the compound above is used in combination with a second therapeutic agent. In some embodiments, the compounds of the disclosure can be administered with one or more of a second therapeutic agent, sequentially or concurrently, either by the same route or by different routes of administration. When administered sequentially, the time between administrations is selected to benefit, among others, the therapeutic efficacy and/or safety of the combination treatment. In some embodiments, the compound of the disclosure can be administered first followed by a second therapeutic agent, or alternatively, the second therapeutic agent administered first followed by the compound of the disclosure. In some embodiments, the compound of the disclosure can be administered for the same duration as the second therapeutic agent, or alternatively, for a longer or shorter duration as the second therapeutic compound.

When administered concurrently, the compounds of the disclosure can be administered separately at the same time as the second therapeutic agent, by the same or different routes, or administered in a single composition by the same route. In some embodiments, the compound of the disclosure is prepared as a first pharmaceutical composition, and the second therapeutic agent prepared as a second pharmaceutical composition, where the first pharmaceutical composition and the second pharmaceutical composition are administered simultaneously, sequentially, or separately. In some embodiments, the amount and frequency of administration of the second therapeutic agent can used standard dosages and standard administration frequencies used for the particular therapeutic agent. See, e.g., Physicians' Desk Reference, 70th Ed., PDR Network, 2015; incorporated herein by reference.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is a leukotriene inhibitor, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), steroid, tyrosine kinase inhibitor, receptor kinase inhibitor, modulator of nuclear receptor family of transcription factor, HSP90 inhibitor, adenosine receptor (A_(2A)) agonist, disease modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDS), phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor, neutrophil elastase inhibitor, modulator of Axl kinase, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is a leukotriene inhibitor. In some embodiments, the leukotriene inhibitor is montelukast, zafirlukast, pranlukast, zileuton, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is a an NSAID. In some embodiments, the NSAID is acetylsalicylic acid, diflunisal, salsalate, ibuprofen, dexibuprofen, naioxen, fenoprofen, ketoprofen, dexketoprofen, flurbiprofen, oxaprozin, loxoprofen, indomethacin, tolmetin, sulindac, etodolac, ketorolac, diclofenac, aceclofenac, nabumetone, piroxicam, meloxicam, tenoxicam, droxicam, lornoxicam, phenylbutazone, mefenamic acid, meclofenamic acid, flufenamic acid, tolfenamic acid, celecoxib or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is a steroid. In some embodiments, the steroid is prednisone, prednisolone, methylprednisone, triacmcinolone, betamethasone, dexamethasone, and prodrugs thereof.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor. In some embodiments, the tyrosine kinase inhibitor is an inhibitor of the following kinases, including, among others, JAK, Syk, JNK/SAPK, MAPK, PI-3K, or Ripk2. In some embodiments, the tyrosine kinase inhibitor is ruxolitinib, tofacitinib, oclactinib, filgotinib, ganotinib, lestaurtinib, momelotinib, pacritinib, upadacitinib, peficitinib, fedratinib, bentamapimod, D-JNKI-1 (XG-102, AM-111), ponatinib, WEHI-345, OD36, GSK583, idelalisib, copanlisib, taselisib, duvelisib, alpelisib, umbralisib, dactolisib, CUDC-907, entospletinib, fostamatinib, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is a receptor kinase inhibitor, including among others, and inhibitor of EGFR or HER2. In some embodiments, the receptor kinase inhibitor is gefitinib, erlotinib, neratinib, lapatinib, cetuximab, panitumumab, vandetanib, necitumumab, osimertinib, trastuzumab, neratinib, lapatinib, pertuzumab, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is a modulator of nuclear receptor family of transcription factors, including, among others, and inhibitor of PPAR, RXR, FXR, or LXR. In some embodiments, the inhibitor is pioglitazone, bexarotene, obeticholic acid, ursodeoxycholic acid, fexaramine, hypocholamide, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is an HSP90 inhibitor. In some embodiments, the HSP90 inhibitor is ganetespib, 17-AAG (17-allylaminogeldanamycin, NSC330507), 17-DMAG (17-dimethylaminoethylamino-17-demethoxy-geldanamycin, NSC707545), IPI-504, CNF1010, CNF2024, CNF1010, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is an adenosine receptor 2A (A_(2A)) agonist. In some embodiments, the adenosine receptor agonist is, among others, disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 9,067,963, which is incorporated herein by reference. In some embodiments, the adenosine receptor agonist is LNC-3050, LNC-3015, LNC-3047, LNC-3052, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is selected from disease modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDS). In some embodiments, the DMARDS is, among others, tocilizumab, certolizumab, etanercept, adalimumab, anakinra, abatacept, infliximab, rituximab, golimumab, uteskinumab, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is a phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor. In some embodiments, the phosphodiesterase inhibitor is apremilast, crisaborole, piclimilast, drotaverine, ibudulast, roflumilast, sildenafil, tadalafil, vardenafil, or combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is a neutrophil elastase inhibitor. In some embodiments, the neutrophil elastase inhibitor is, among others, sivelestat.

In some embodiments, the second therapeutic agent is a modulator of Axl kinase. In some embodiments, the modulator of Axl kinase is bemcentinib (BGB324 or R428), TP-0903, LY2801653, amuvatinib (MP-470), bosutinib (SKI-606), MGCD 265, ASP2215, cabozantinib (XL184), foretinib (GSK1363089/XL880), and SGI-7079. In some embodiments, the modulator of Axl kinase is a monoclonal antibody targeting AXL (e.g., YW327.6S2) or an AXL decoy receptor (e.g., GL2I.T), or glesatinib, merestinib, or a dual Flt3-Axl inhibitor such as gilteritinib.

1.7. Pharmaceutically Acceptable Compositions

The compounds and compositions, according to the method of the present disclosure, are administered using any amount and any route of administration and any duration of treatment effective for treating or lessening the severity of a disorder provided above. The exact amount required will vary from subject to subject, depending on the species, age, and general condition of the subject, the severity of the disorder, the particular agent, its mode of administration, and the like. The compounds are preferably formulated in dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage. The expression “dosage unit form” or “unit dosage form” as used herein refers to a physically discrete unit of agent appropriate for the patient to be treated. It will be understood, however, that the total daily usage of the compounds and compositions described herein can be decided by the attending physician within the scope of sound medical judgment. The specific effective dose level for any particular patient or organism will depend upon a variety of factors including the disorder being treated and the severity of the disorder; the activity of the specific compound employed; the specific composition employed; the age, body weight, general health, sex and diet of the patient; the time of administration, route of administration, and rate of excretion of the specific compound employed; the duration of the treatment; drugs used in combination or coincidental with the specific compound employed, and like factors well known in the medical arts.

Pharmaceutically acceptable compositions of the compounds can be administered to humans and other animals orally, rectally, intrathecally, subcutaneously, intravenously, intranasally, parenterally, intracisternally, intravaginally, intraperitoneally, intravitreally, topically (as by powders, ointments, or drops), buccally, as an oral or nasal spray, or the like, depending on the severity of the condition being treated. In certain embodiments, the compounds described herein are administered orally or parenterally at dosage levels of about 0.01 mg/kg to about 50 mg/kg and preferably from about 1 mg/kg to about 25 mg/kg, of subject body weight per day, one or more times a day, to obtain the desired therapeutic effect. In some embodiments, the compounds are administered systemically, such as by oral or parenteral administration.

Liquid dosage forms for oral administration include, but are not limited to, pharmaceutically acceptable emulsions, microemulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups and elixirs. In addition to the active compounds, the liquid dosage forms may contain inert diluents commonly used in the art such as, for example, water or other solvents, solubilizing agents and emulsifiers such as ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, propylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, dimethylformamide, oils (in particular, cottonseed, groundnut, corn, germ, olive, castor, and sesame oils), glycerol, tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol, polyethylene glycols and fatty acid esters of sorbitan, and mixtures thereof. Besides inert diluents, the oral compositions can also include adjuvants such as wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, sweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents.

Injectable preparations, for example, sterile injectable aqueous or oleaginous suspensions may be formulated according to the known art using suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents. The sterile injectable preparation may also be a sterile injectable solution, suspension or emulsion in a nontoxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent, for example, as a solution in 1,3-butanediol. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that may be employed are water, Ringer's solution, U.S.P. and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose, any bland fixed oil can be employed including synthetic mono- or diglycerides. In addition, fatty acids such as oleic acid are used in the preparation of injectables.

Injectable formulations can be sterilized, for example, by filtration through a bacterial-retaining filter, or by incorporating sterilizing agents in the form of sterile solid compositions which can be dissolved or dispersed in sterile water or other sterile injectable medium prior to use.

In order to prolong the effect of a compound described herein, it is often desirable to slow the absorption of the compound from subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. This may be accomplished by the use of a liquid suspension of crystalline or amorphous material with poor water solubility. The rate of absorption of the compound then depends upon its rate of dissolution that, in turn, may depend upon crystal size and crystalline form. Alternatively, delayed absorption of a parenterally administered compound form is accomplished by dissolving or suspending the compound in an oil vehicle. Injectable depot forms are made by forming microencapsulate matrices of the compound in biodegradable polymers such as polylactide-polyglycolide. Depending upon the ratio of compound to polymer and the nature of the particular polymer employed, the rate of compound release can be controlled. Examples of other biodegradable polymers include poly(orthoesters) and poly(anhydrides). Depot injectable formulations are also prepared by entrapping the compound in liposomes or microemulsions that are compatible with body tissues. Subcutaneous depot formulations are also prepared with hyaluronidase.

Compositions for rectal or vaginal administration are preferably suppositories which can be prepared by mixing the compounds described herein with suitable non-irritating excipients or carriers such as cocoa butter, polyethylene glycol or a suppository wax which are solid at ambient temperature but liquid at body temperature and therefore melt in the rectum or vaginal cavity and release the active compound.

Solid dosage forms for oral administration include capsules, tablets, pills, powders, and granules. In such solid dosage forms, the active compound is mixed with at least one inert, pharmaceutically acceptable excipient or carrier such as sodium citrate or dicalcium phosphate and/or a) fillers or extenders such as starches, lactose, sucrose, glucose, mannitol, and silicic acid, b) binders such as, for example, carboxymethylcellulose, alginates, gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidone, sucrose, and acacia, c) humectants such as glycerol, d) disintegrating agents such as agar-agar, calcium carbonate, potato or tapioca starch, alginic acid, certain silicates, and sodium carbonate, e) solution retarding agents such as paraffin, f) absorption accelerators such as quaternary ammonium compounds, g) wetting agents such as, for example, cetyl alcohol and glycerol monostearate, h) absorbents such as kaolin and bentonite clay, and i) lubricants such as talc, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, solid polyethylene glycols, sodium lauryl sulfate, and mixtures thereof. In the case of capsules, tablets and pills, the dosage form may also comprise buffering agents.

Solid compositions of a similar type may also be employed as fillers in soft and hard-filled gelatin capsules using such excipients as lactose or milk sugar as well as high molecular weight polyethylene glycols and the like. The solid dosage forms of tablets, dragees, capsules, pills, and granules can be prepared with coatings and shells such as enteric coatings and other coatings well known in the pharmaceutical formulating art. They may optionally contain opacifying agents and can also be of a composition that they release the active ingredient(s) only, or preferentially, in a certain part of the intestinal tract, optionally, in a delayed manner. Examples of embedding compositions that can be used include polymeric substances and waxes. Solid compositions of a similar type may also be employed as fillers in soft and hard-filled gelatin capsules using such excipients as lactose or milk sugar as well as high molecular weight polyethylene glycols and the like.

The active compounds can also be in micro-encapsulated form with one or more excipients as noted above. The solid dosage forms of tablets, dragees, capsules, pills, and granules can be prepared with coatings and shells such as enteric coatings, release controlling coatings and other coatings well known in the pharmaceutical formulating art. In such solid dosage forms the active compound may be admixed with at least one inert diluent such as sucrose, lactose or starch. Such dosage forms may also comprise, as is normal practice, additional substances other than inert diluents, e.g., tableting lubricants and other tableting aids such a magnesium stearate and microcrystalline cellulose. In the case of capsules, tablets and pills, the dosage forms may also comprise buffering agents. They may optionally contain opacifying agents and can also be of a composition that they release the active ingredient(s) only, or preferentially, in a certain part of the intestinal tract, optionally, in a delayed manner. Examples of embedding compositions that can be used include polymeric substances and waxes.

Dosage forms for topical or transdermal administration of a compound of the present disclosure include ointments, pastes, creams, lotions, gels, powders, solutions, sprays, inhalants or patches. The active component is admixed under sterile conditions with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and any needed preservatives or buffers as may be required. Ophthalmic formulation, ear drops, and eye drops are also contemplated as being within the scope of this disclosure. Additionally, the embodiments herein contemplate the use of transdermal patches, which have the added advantage of providing controlled delivery of a compound to the body. Such dosage forms can be made by dissolving or dispensing the compound in the proper medium. Absorption enhancers can also be used to increase the flux of the compound across the skin. The rate can be controlled by either providing a rate controlling membrane or by dispersing the compound in a polymer matrix or gel.

The compounds of the present disclosure can also be administered topically, such as directly to the eye, e.g., as an eye-drop or ophthalmic ointment. Eye drops typically comprise an effective amount of at least one compound described herein and a carrier capable of being safely applied to an eye. For example, the eye drops are in the form of an isotonic solution, and the pH of the solution is adjusted so that there is no irritation of the eye. In many instances, the epithelial barrier interferes with penetration of molecules into the eye. Thus, most currently used ophthalmic drugs are supplemented with some form of penetration enhancer. These penetration enhancers work by loosening the tight junctions of the most superior epithelial cells (Burstein, 1985, Trans Ophthalmol Soc U K 104(Pt 4):402-9; Ashton et al., 1991, J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 259(2):719-24; Green et al., 1971, Am J Ophthalmol. 72(5):897-905). The most commonly used penetration enhancer is benzalkonium chloride (Tang et al., 1994, J Pharm Sci. 83(1):85-90; Burstein et al, 1980, Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 19(3):308-13), which also works as preservative against microbial contamination. It is typically added to a final concentration of 0.01-0.05%.

In some embodiments, the compounds for use in the method can be formulated with a cyclodextrin, for example as described in U.S. patent publication no. US 2012/0302601, incorporated herein by reference. In some embodiments, the cyclodextrin for use in the pharmaceutical compositions can be selected from α-cyclodextrin, β-cyclodextrin, γ-cyclodextrin, derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof. In particular, the cyclodextrin for use in the methods is selected from β-cyclodextrin, γ-cyclodextrin, derivatives thereof, and combinations thereof.

In some embodiments, the compounds can be formulated with a cyclodextrin or derivative thereof selected from carboxyalkyl cyclodextrin, hydroxyalkyl cyclodextrin, sulfoalkylether cyclodextrin, and an alkyl cyclodextrin. In various embodiments, the alkyl group in the cyclodextrin is methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, or pentyl.

In some embodiments, the cyclodextrin is α-cyclodextrin or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the α-cyclodextrin or derivative thereof is selected from carboxyalkyl-α-cyclodextrin, hydroxyalkyl-α-cyclodextrin, sulfoalkylether-α-cyclodextrin, alkyl-α-cyclodextrin, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the alkyl group in the α-cyclodextrin derivative is methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, or pentyl.

In some embodiments, the cyclodextrin is β-cyclodextrin or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the β-cyclodextrin or derivative thereof is selected from carboxyalkyl-p-cyclodextrin, hydroxyalkyl-β-cyclodextrin, sulfoalkylether-β-cyclodextrin, alkyl-β-cyclodextrin, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the alkyl group in the β-cyclodextrin derivative is methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, or pentyl.

In some embodiments, the β-cyclodextrin or a derivative thereof is hydroxyalkyl-p-cyclodextrin or sulfoalkylether-β-cyclodextrin. In some embodiments, the hydroxyalkyl-p-cyclodextrin is hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin. In some embodiments, the sulfoalkylether-p-cyclodextrin is sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin. In some embodiments, β-cyclodextrin or a derivative thereof is alkyl-β-cyclodextrin, in particular methyl-β-cyclodextrin. In some embodiments using methyl-β-cyclodextrin, the β-cyclodextrin is randomly methylated p-cyclodextrin.

In some embodiments, the cyclodextrin is γ-cyclodextrin or a derivative thereof. In some embodiments, the γ-cyclodextrin or derivative thereof is selected from carboxyalkyl-γ-cyclodextrin, hydroxyalkyl-γ-cyclodextrin, sulfoalkylether-γ-cyclodextrin, and alkyl-γ-cyclodextrin. In some embodiments, the alkyl group in the γ-cyclodextrin derivative is methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, or pentyl. In some embodiments, the γ-cyclodextrin or derivative thereof is hydroxyalkyl-γ-cyclodextrin or sulfoalkylether-γ-cyclodextrin. In some embodiments, the hydroxyalkyl-γ-cyclodextrin is hydroxypropyl-γ-cyclodextrin.

When used in a formulation with the compound, the cyclodextrin can be present at about 0.1 w/v to about 30% w/v, about 0.1 w/v to about 20% w/v, about 0.5% w/v to about 10% w/v, or about 1% w/v to about 5% w/v. In some embodiments, the cyclodextrin is present at about 0.10% w/v, about 0.2% w/v, about 0.50% w/v, about 10% w/v, about 2% w/v, about 30% w/v, about 4% w/v, about 5% w/v, about 6% w/v, about 7% w/v, about 8% w/v, about 9% w/v, about 10% w/v, about 12% w/v, about 14% w/v, about 16% w/v, about 18% w/v, about 20% w/v, about 25% w/v, or about 30% w/v or more.

In some embodiments, such as for topical or intravitreal administration, the compound can be present at a concentration of about 0.05% w/v to about 10% w/v, about 0.1% w/v to about 5% w/v, about 0.2% w/v to about 4% w/v, about 0.3% to about 3% w/v, about 0.4% w/v to about 2% w/v, or about 0.5% w/v to about 1.5% w/v. In some embodiments, the compound can be present at a concentration at about least about 0.05% w/v, about 0.1% w/v, about 0.2% w/v, about 0.3% w/v, about 0.4% w/v, about 0.5% w/v, about 0.6% w/v, about 0.7% w/v, about 0.8% w/v, about 0.9% w/v, about 10% w/v, about 1.50% w/v, about 2% w/v, about 30% w/v, about 4% w/v, about 50% w/v, about 6% w/v, about 7% w/v, about 8% w/v, about 9% w/v, or about 10% w/v. In some embodiments, the concentrations are for a formulation with a cyclodextrin, such as β-cyclodextrin. In some embodiments, the amount administered topically can be about 20 to about 100 μL per dose, about 30 to 80 μL per dose or about 40 to 60 μL per dose of a defined concentration of the compound effective for treating the disorder. In some embodiments, compound I-22, I-5 or I-6 of Table 1a or Table 1b is formulated with a β-cyclodextrin, such as hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin or sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin.

In some embodiments, the compound is formulated as an ophthalmic solution such as those described in US provisional patent application serial no. U.S. 62/736,417, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. In some embodiments, the compound is 1-5.

In order that the invention described herein may be more fully understood, the following examples are set forth. It should be understood that these examples are for illustrative purposes only and are not to be construed as limiting this invention in any manner.

EXAMPLES

As depicted in the Examples below, the following general methods, and other methods known to one of ordinary skill in the art, can be applied to all compounds and subclasses and species of each of these compounds, as described herein.

Example 1: Treatment of Animal Model of Diabetic Macular Edema

Diabetic macular edema (DME) is a common cause of vision loss. Hyperglycemia leads to carbonyl stress in the retina, resulting in accumulation of toxic aldehydes such as methylglyoxal, 4-hydroxy-trans-2-nonenal, and malondialdehyde, which induce inflammatory changes in the eye, including the development of DME.

To assess the effect of Compound I-22 in a rat model of diabetic macular edema (DME), Type 1 diabetes was induced in male brown Norway rats by intraperitoneal administration of streptozotocin (STZ; 55 mg/kg). Forty days after STZ administration, animals were assessed for the presence of diabetes by testing blood glucose levels.

Compound I-22 was supplied as a preformulated sterile solution at 5 mg/mL. The vehicle was 25% hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin solution (333 mOsm/kg) in a sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.2. Animals with diabetes were assigned to groups of ten, to receive either vehicle (HPβCD) or compound I-22.

The study consisted of three groups of male brown Norway rats. Diabetes and diabetic retinopathy were induced in Groups 2 and 3 by intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (STZ) on Day 0; Group 1 animals served as non-STZ (non-diabetic) untreated controls. Six and eight weeks after STZ injection, Vehicle (3.5 μL) and Compound I-22 (17.5 μg per eye; 3.5 μL) were administered intravitreally to both eyes of rats in Group 2 and Group 3, respectively. Clinical observations (daily), body weights (weekly), qualitative food consumption, and blood glucose levels (weekly) were assessed. To evaluate retinopathy, electroretinography (ERG) was conducted at Weeks 8, 9 and 10; and optical coherence tomography (OCT) and fundus fluorescein angiography (FFA) were performed pre-dose at Week 6, and at Weeks 8, 9, and 10. Animals were euthanized at 10 weeks post-STZ administration and eyes were collected for histopathological evaluation.

Induction of Diabetic Retinopathy by Streptozotocin

Type 1 diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal administration of 55 mg/kg STZ after an overnight fast. The STZ dosing solution (27.5 mg/mL) was prepared immediately prior to injection by dissolving STZ (Sigma-Aldrich Corp, St. Louis, Mo., Catalog S0130) in a citrate solution (see below) followed by filtration of the STZ solution using a 0.2 μm syringe filter (Pall Life Sciences, Ann Arbor, Mich., Catalog PN4192). The STZ dosing solution was used for injection within approximately 30 minutes after reconstitution.

The citrate solution (0.01 M) used for reconstitution of STZ was made by mixing 1.9 g citric acid (Sigma-Aldrich Corp, St. Louis, Mo., Catalog C0759) with 1 L 0.9% Sodium Chloride for Injection (Hospira NDC0409-7983-02, Lot 62-034-JT), adjusting the pH to 4.5 with sodium hydroxide (Sigma-Aldrich Corp, St. Louis, Mo., Catalog S2770 for 1 N NaOH) followed by filtration of the STZ solution using a 0.2 μm syringe filter. This citrate solution was stored at room temperature and used for reconstituting STZ within two weeks of preparation.

Clinical Observations

Clinical observations, including morbidity, mortality, and overt signs of toxic or pharmacologic effect(s) were recorded for individual animals once daily throughout the in-life phase (acclimation and treatment period). All signs of clinical abnormality were recorded.

Body Weights

The rats were weighed prior to dosing, weekly thereafter, and prior to necropsy.

Food Consumption

Food consumption was qualitatively assessed weekly.

Blood Glucose Determination

Non-fasting blood glucose levels were determined prior to STZ administration, weekly thereafter and at necropsy, by a glucometer (AlphaTrak Blood Glucose Monitoring System, Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, Ill.).

OCT, FFA and ERG

Electroretinography (ERG) was performed on Days 55, 62 and 69. After an overnight dark adaption, both eyes were dilated with 1% tropicamide. Animals were anesthetized by isoflurane prior to the procedure. ERG responses to light stimuli (8.0 cd s/m²) were recorded by RETevet (LKC Technologies, Inc.). Implicit times and amplitudes of a-waves and b-waves were reported. There was a deviation from the protocol in which ERG was not performed prior to Test Article administration (˜Day 40). The deviation had no impact on the conclusion of the study. Baseline ERG measurements are not required to determine efficacy of the Test Article. A Day-62 ERG assessment was added to the study.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) and fundus fluorescein angiography (FFA) were performed on Day 41 (pre-dose) and Days 56, 63 and 70 (post-dose initiation). Both eyes were dilated with 1% tropicamide. Animals were anesthetized (by ketamine/xylazine intramuscular injection) prior to the procedures.

Retinas of both eyes in each animal were scanned by OCT (Envisu R-Class, Leica/Bioptogen). Thickness of retinal mid-layers, approximately including the outer plexiform layer (OPL), the outer nuclear layer (ONL) and the photoreceptor inner segment (IS), were measured using Bioptigen InVivoVue Reader software. For each eye, four (4) digital calipers were placed randomly on a cross-section image between OPL and IS, away from optic nerve; and measurements were exported to Microsoft Excel files. An average thickness of each retina was calculated from the four (4) measurements, using Microsoft Excel.

For FFA, ˜1.5 mL/kg fluorescein (AK-FLUOR® fluorescein injection, USP, 10%, NDC 17478253-10) was injected intraperitoneally to visualize the retinal vasculature. Retinal angiograms were obtained from both eyes of each animal (Micron IV, Phoenix Phoenix Research Labs) and the images were manually scored for retinal vasculature leakage on a scale of 0 to 4 (0-normal, 1—slight, 2—mild, 3—moderate, 4—severe).

Necropsy

Animals were euthanized on Day 71. Both eyes of each animal were enucleated and fixed in modified Davidson's solution overnight before being transferred to 10% neutral buffered formalin for histopathological processing and evaluation at the Testing Facility. The carcasses were disposed of without further analysis.

Histopathology

Fixed eyes were dehydrated and embedded in paraffin. Sections of 3- to 5-μm thickness were cut and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. The slides were evaluated via light microscopy by a board-certified veterinary pathologist. Abnormalities, such as inflammation (increase in leukocytes) and neovascularization were described and semi-quantitatively scored as normal (0), slight (1), mild (2), moderate (3), and severe (4). Six step sections per eye were evaluated.

Statistical Analysis

Means and standard deviations were calculated using Microsoft Excel. Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism 5 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, Calif.). Homogeneity of variance was assumed due to small group size. Continuous normal data was analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Dunnett's test. Nonparametric data was analyzed by Kruskal-Wallis test followed by Dunn's test. Group 1 and Group 3 were individually compared to Group 2 in the post tests. P values <0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Results

As expected, STZ injected rats showed elevated blood glucose levels and reduced body weight (and body weight gain) from one week post-STZ administration until the end of study, compared to the non-diabetic control rats (Group 1). Compared to Group 1, rats in the vehicle-treated diabetic group (Group 2) exhibited delayed ERG a-waves and b-waves, and thickened retinal mid-layers by OCT at 8, 9 and 10 weeks post-STZ injection. Increased vascular leakage (FFA) was observed at 8 and 9 weeks post-STZ injection in Group 2 as well. No statistically significant differences were observed between the Test Article-treated Group 3 and the Vehicle-treated Group 2 for these parameters (body weights, glucose levels, ERG, OCT or FFA).

Histopathological evaluation performed on ocular tissues collected ten weeks after the STZ injection showed increased retinal thickness, vascularity, and neutrophil infiltration in the Vehicle-treated Group 2 compared to the non-diabetic Group 1. The severities of the retinal lesions were significantly diminished in the Compound I-22-treated Group 3 compared to the Vehicle-treated Group 2.

Increases in retinal thickness, vascularity, and neutrophil infiltration were observed in the diabetic rats (Group 2) compared to the non-diabetic rats (Group 1). There were reductions in the severity of each of the retinal lesions in I-22-treated diabetic rats (Group 3) compared to vehicle-treated diabetic rats (Group 2), with the reductions in retinal layer thickness and neutrophil infiltration being statistically significant. The retinal thickness and vascular leakage slightly increased in the STZ-induced rat model at Week 8. Mean vascular scores were 3.0 for the control group and 2.47 (p<0.05) in the compound I-22-treated group. At Week 9, OCT showed a mean retinal thickness of 82.3 μm in the compound I-22-treated group, and 83.3 μm in the vehicle-treated group. Retinal thickness in the compound I-22-treated group was reduced at Weeks 9 and 10, however it was not statistically significant from the vehicle treated group.

A further analysis of the change in retinal thickness based on scoring of microscopically visible changes also showed a reduction in retinal thickness in diabetic rats treated with compound I-22 compared to the vehicle treated rats. The scoring used the following: 0=normal, 1=minimal microscopically visible changes; 2=mild microscopically visible changes; 3=moderate microscopically visible changes. **p<0.01 Statistical analysis was performed by a non-parametric Dunn's multiple comparison followed by the Kruskal-Wallis test. Treatment with compound I-22 resulted in a statically significant decrease in retinal thickness.

Histopathology assessments at Week 10 showed significantly reduced retinal thickness (p<0.0001) in the compound I-22-treated group. This decrease in retinal inflammation was accompanied by a significant reduction in neutrophil infiltration compared to vehicle based on assessment of microscopic sections of the retinas. Scoring was based on the following: 0=normal, 1=minimal microscopically visible changes, 2=mild microscopically visible changes, 3=moderate microscopically visible changes. **p<0.01 Statistical analysis was performed by a non-parametric Dunn's multiple comparison followed by the Kruskal-Wallis test.

Microscopic sections of the retinas were also assessed for vascular leakage. Treatment with compound I-22 inhibited diabetes-induced retinal vascular changes, as indicated by a decrease in retinal vascularity score by 36% (p<0.05) in the compound I-22-treated group compared to vehicle. However, the reduction in retinal vascularity compared to vehicle was not statistically significant. Retinal vascularity was based on the following scoring: 0=normal, 1=minimal microscopically visible changes, 2=mild microscopically visible changes, 3=moderate microscopically visible changes. STZ did not induce ERG changes, nor were there any ERG changes in the compound I-22- or vehicle-treated groups relative to the non-diabetic control group.

A decrease in vascular leakage was observed between the diabetic compound I-22-treated group and the vehicle-treated group, but the decrease did not reach statistical significance. In addition, although significant histopathological improvements were observed following treatment with compound I-22, ERG, OCT, or FFA did not show statistically significant effects following treatment with compound I-22.

Discussion and Conclusions

Diabetic retinopathy was successfully induced in rats in this 10-week study. Histopathologic scoring showed statistically significant reductions in severities of retinopathy lesions in Compound I-22-treated diabetic rats compared to vehicle-treated diabetic rats. Interestingly, clinical evaluations (ERG, OCT or FFA) did not show any statistically significant Test Article effects.

In conclusion, the data suggest that sequestration of aldehydes represents a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of the ophthalmic inflammatory sequelae of diabetes. Compound I-22 decreased retinal inflammation, blocked neutrophil infiltration and blocked retinal vascular changes in this model of DME. Compound I-22 was also well tolerated in the retina.

Example 2: Treatment of Animal Model of Uveitis

An in vivo study was conducted to assess the efficacy of intravitreal administration of compound I-22 in a rat model of endotoxin induced uveitis, one of the most appropriate models for the study of NIU (Smith et al., 1998) (Toxikon Study 16-04078-N1). Ocular inflammation was induced in female Lewis rats (n=10/group) by a single foot pad injection of LPS (100 μL) (Herbort et al., 1988, Graefe's Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 226:553-558). Compound I-22 (5 mg/mL) was administered intravitreally into each eye (25 μg/eye), or topically to both eyes at 1, 3, 7, 10, and 17 hours post-LPS injection, within one hour of LPS administration. Balanced salt solution (BSS) served as a vehicle control. Retinal exams were performed prior to study start and six and 24 hours following LPS administration and scored using a Combined Draize and McDonald Shadduck scoring system, based on assessments of: retinal vasculopathy and retinal hemorrhage, exudate, and detachment.

Parameters evaluated during the study included changes in the anterior and posterior segments of the eye.

Endotoxin-induced uveitis was created by a single injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 100 μL) into one hind footpad. Ten (10) female Lewis rats per group received control (balanced salt solution, BSS) or test article (compound I-22) topically to both eyes at 1, 3, 7, 10, and 17 hours post-LPS injection. At each dosing time point, two drops (5 μL each, separated by approximately two minutes, for a total of 10 μL/eye/dose) were instilled into each eye of the animals. Ten female Lewis rats per group received control (BSS) or compound I-22 by a single intravitreal injection (IVT) in each eye at one hour post-LPS injection. Each eye received 5 μL of vehicle or test article.

Animals were anesthetized with isoflurane 1-3.5% for ophthalmic examinations. Both eyes of each animal were evaluated pre-dose using slit-lamp biomicroscopy, and an indirect ophthalmoscope or a surgical microscope, according to the Combined Draize and McDonald-Shadduck Scoring System, and the Ocular Posterior Segment Scoring Scale. All pupils were dilated with 1% tropicamide ophthalmic solution before ocular examination. Only rats showing no signs of eye irritation, ocular defects or preexisting corneal injury were used in the study.

Post-Dose Procedure:

Ophthalmic Examinations:

Ophthalmic examinations were performed on both eyes of each animal approximately six and 24 hours following LPS administration, using slit-lamp biomicroscopy and a surgical microscope or via indirect ophthalmoscopy. Pupils were dilated with 1% Tropicamide Ophthalmic Solution before ophthalmic examinations.

Statistical Analysis:

Quantitative, continuous data from this study were analyzed using one-way ANOVA. Alternative or additional statistical methods were used as necessary. Differences between control and treated animals were considered statistically significant only if the probability of the differences being due to chance were equal to or less than 5% (p<0.05). Statistically significant differences in the parameters were further assessed for biological significance.

Results

Overall scores from ophthalmic examinations were assessed approximately six and 24 hours after LPS administration. Overall score is the sum of scores from the criteria for evaluation.

Approximately six hours post LPS administration, rats that had received Compound I-22 topical) had a significantly lower (p<0.05) overall ophthalmic examination score than rats that had received control topically. Approximately 24 hours post LPS administration, the overall scores for rat that had received Compound I-22 topical were significantly lower (p<0.05) than rats that had received control topically.

Following IVT administration of test articles, ophthalmic examination scores for rats that had received Compound I-22 IVT were significantly lower (p<0.05) than for rats that had received control IVT, at approximately six and 24 hours post LPS administration.

Analysis of ophthalmic examination scores for topically dosed groups showed statistically lower scores for rats dosed with compound I-22 topically, relative to rats dosed with control topically, approximately six hours post-LPS administration. Rats that received compound I-22 topically had significantly lower ophthalmic examination scores than the topical control group at approximately 24 hours post LPS administration. When dosed with compound I-22 IVT, rats showed significantly lower scores relative to rats dosed IVT with control, at approximately six and 24 hours post LPS administration.

The sums of the mean retinal examination scores for compound I-22-treated (IVT) animals were significantly reduced relative to vehicle controls, as illustrated in FIG. 2 .

In the same study, the efficacy of compound I-5 was compared to that of compound I-22. Compound I-5 was topically administered topically to the eye at hours 1, 3, 7, 10, and 17, after LPS induction, or by a single intravitreal (IVT) injection one hour after LPS induction (n=10 per group), as was compound I-22. Ocular exams were performed 6 and 24 hours after LPS injection. Anterior segments were scored using a combined Draize and McDonald-Shadduck scoring system, and posterior segments were scored using 0 to 1 (vitreous, optic disc, retinal vasculature) and 0 to 4 (retinal and choroidal hemorrhage, exudation, and detachment) scales. Statistical significance from vehicle control was determined by ANOVA, followed by Tukey's post hoc test.

Ocular exam scores were significantly improved, compared to vehicle, at 6 hours and 24 hours after topical (TO) administration of Compound I-5 or Compound I-22. Total ocular inflammation, anterior chamber inflammation and retina-choroid inflammation scores were all lower in the Compound I-5- or Compound I-22-treated groups. After IVT administration of Compound I-5 or Compound I-22, ocular exam scores were also significantly improved vs. vehicle. Total ocular inflammation, anterior chamber inflammation, and retina-choroid inflammation for intravitreal administration were all lower in the Compound I-5- and Compound I-22-treated groups compared to vehicles.

Overall, Compound I-5 and Compound I-22 reduced the signs of inflammation in the rat EIU model. Intravitreal administration of the test articles yielded results of greater statistical significance compared to topical administration. Both Compound I-5 and Compound I-22 showed positive response in the EIU model, with Compound I-22 showing a slightly more positive response than Compound I-5.

Example 3: A Multi-Center, Phase 2b, Randomized, Double-Masked, Parallel-Group, Vehicle-Controlled, Clinical Study to Assess the Safety and Efficacy of I-5 Ophthalmic Solution (0.25% and 0.1%) Compared to Vehicle in Subjects with Dry Eye Disease Abbreviations

-   CAE: controlled adverse environment -   GMP: Good Manufacturing Practice -   ICH: International Council for Harmonization of Technical     Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use -   OD: right eye -   OS: left eye -   OU: both eyes -   PRN: as needed -   QD: once daily -   QID: Four times daily -   QS: as much as will suffice

Objectives:

-   -   To evaluate the efficacy of I-5 Ophthalmic Solutions (0.25% and         0.1%) on baseline to weeks 2, 4, 8, and 12 change scores for         sign and symptom endpoints of dry eye disease.     -   To evaluate effect sizes for efficacy endpoints of I-5         Ophthalmic Solutions (0.25% and 0.1%) vs vehicle for the         treatment of the signs and symptoms of dry eye disease to         confirm the endpoint selection and sample size for Phase 3         studies.     -   To evaluate the safety and tolerability of I-5 Ophthalmic         Solutions (0.25% and 0.10%) to vehicle for the treatment of the         signs and symptoms of dry eye disease.

Investigational Product:

-   -   1) I-5 Ophthalmic Solution (0.25%)     -   2) I-5 Ophthalmic Solution (0.1%)     -   3) Vehicle Ophthalmic Solution

In the Phase 2b study, I-5 was formulated as an ophthalmic solution as described in the specification.

Duration: A subject's participation was estimated to be approximately 14 weeks (98 days).

Dosage/Dose Regimen/Instillation/Application/Use:

Screening: Between Visits 1 and 2, all subjects received 14 consecutive days (±2) of Run-in (vehicle) ocular drops self-administered QID in both eyes.

Treatment: During the 12-week (84±3 days) treatment period, I-5 Ophthalmic Solution at concentrations of 0.1%, 0.25%, or vehicle ophthalmic solution was administered QID by bilateral topical ocular dosing. Subjects were randomized to one of three treatment groups (1:1:1) to receive study drug after the Post-CAE® assessments at Visit 2.

Summary of Visit Schedule: Six visits over the course of approximately 14 weeks

-   -   Visit 1=Day −14±2, CAE® Screening     -   Visit 2=Day 1, CAE® Confirmation/Baseline     -   Visit 3=Day 15±2, 2-Week Follow-Up     -   Visit 4=Day 29±2, 4-Week Follow-Up     -   Visit 5=Day 57±3, 8-Week Follow-Up     -   Visit 6=Day 85±3, 12-Week CAE® Follow-Up & Study Exit

Condition/Disease: Dry Eye Disease (DED)

Inclusion Criteria: Subjects for treatment were based on the following criteria:

-   -   1 Been at least 18 years of age of either gender and any race;     -   2 Provide written informed consent and sign the Health         Information Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) form;     -   3 Had a reported history of dry eye for at least six months         prior to Visit 1;     -   4 Had a history of use or desire to use eye drops for dry eye         symptoms within six months of Visit 1;     -   5 Reported a score of ≥2 on the Ora Calibra® Ocular Discomfort &         4-Symptom Questionnaire in at least one symptom at Visit 1 and         Visit 2 Pre-CAE®;     -   6 Had a Schirmer's Test score of ≤10 mm and >1 mm at Visit 1 and         Visit 2;     -   7 Had a tear film break-up time (TFBUT)≤5 seconds at Visit 1 and         Visit 2 Pre-CAE®;     -   8 Had a corneal fluorescein staining score of ≥2 in at least one         region (e.g., inferior, superior, or central) at Visit 1 and         Visit 2 Pre-CAE®;     -   9 Have a sum corneal fluorescein staining score of ≥4, based on         the sum of the inferior, superior, and central regions, at Visit         1 and Visit 2 Pre-CAE®;     -   10 Had a total Lissamine green conjunctival score of ≥2, based         on the sum of the temporal and nasal regions at Visit 1 and         Visit 2 Pre-CAE®;     -   11 Demonstrated a response to the CAE® at Visits 1 and 2 as         defined by:         -   A. Having at least a ≥1 point increase in fluorescein             staining in the inferior region in at least one eye             following CAE® exposure;         -   B. Reporting an Ocular Discomfort score ≥3 at two or more             consecutive time points in at least one eye during CAE®             exposure (if a subject had an Ocular Discomfort rating of 3             at time=0 for an eye, s/he must have reported an Ocular             Discomfort rating of 4 for two consecutive measurements for             that eye). Note: a subject could not have an Ocular             Discomfort score of 4 at time=0);     -   12 Had at least one eye, the same eye, satisfy all criteria for         6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 above.

Exclusion Criteria: Subject were excluded based on the following criteria:

-   -   1 Had any clinically significant slit lamp findings at Visit 1         that may have included active blepharitis, meibomian gland         dysfunction (MGD), lid margin inflammation, or active ocular         allergies that require therapeutic treatment, and/or in the         opinion of the investigator, might have interfered with study         parameters;     -   2 Been diagnosed with an ongoing ocular infection (bacterial,         viral, or fungal), or active ocular inflammation at Visit 1;     -   3 Worn contact lenses within seven days of Visit 1 or anticipate         using contact lenses during the study;     -   4 Used any eye drops within 2 hours of Visit 1;     -   5 Had laser-assisted in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) surgery         within the last 12 months;     -   6 Used cyclosporine 0.05% or lifitigrast 5.0% ophthalmic         solution within 90 days of Visit 1;     -   7 Had any planned ocular and/or lid surgeries over the study         period or any ocular surgery within 6 months of Visit 1;     -   8 Been using or anticipated using temporary punctal plugs during         the study that had not been stable within 30 days of Visit 1;     -   9 Been currently taking any topical ophthalmic prescription         (including medications for glaucoma) or over-the-counter (OTC)         solutions, artificial tears, gels or scrubs, and cannot         discontinue these medications for the duration of the trial         (excluding medications allowed for the conduct of the study);     -   10 Had corrected visual acuity greater than or equal to         logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution (logMAR)+0.7 as         assessed by Early Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy Study         (ETDRS) scale in both eyes at Visit 1;     -   11 Been a woman who is pregnant, nursing, or planning a         pregnancy;     -   12 Been unwilling to submit a urine pregnancy test at Visit 1         and Visit 6 (or early termination visit) if of childbearing         potential. Non-childbearing potential was defined as a woman who         is permanently sterilized (e.g., has had a hysterectomy or tubal         ligation), or was postmenopausal (without menses for 12         consecutive months);     -   13 Been a man or woman of childbearing potential who was not         using an acceptable means of birth control; acceptable methods         of contraception include: hormonal—oral, implantable,         injectable, or transdermal contraceptives; mechanical—spermicide         in conjunction with a barrier such as a diaphragm or condom;         intrauterine device (IUD); or surgical sterilization of partner.         For non-sexually active males or females, abstinence may have         been regarded as an adequate method of birth control; however,         if the subject became sexually active during the study, he/she         must have agreed to use adequate birth control as defined above         for the remainder of the study;     -   14 Had a known allergy and/or sensitivity to the test article or         its components;     -   15 Had a condition or be in a situation which the investigator         feels may have put the subject at significant risk, confounded         the study results, or interfered significantly with the         subject's participation in the study;     -   16 Been currently enrolled in an investigational drug or device         study or have used an investigational drug or device within 30         days of Visit 1;     -   17 Previously used I-5 ophthalmic solution;     -   18 Been currently using any medication known to cause ocular         drying that was not used on a stable dosing regimen for at least         30 days prior to Visit 1;     -   19 Been unable or unwilling to follow instructions, including         participation in all study assessments and visits.

The following efficacy measures and endpoints were used in the study:

-   -   Lissamine green staining (Ora Calibra® scale); regions:         inferior, superior, central, temporal, nasal, corneal sum,         conjunctival sum, and total eye score)     -   Fluorescein staining (Ora Calibra® scale); regions: central,         superior, inferior, temporal, nasal, corneal sum, conjunctival         sum, and total eye score)     -   Tear film break-up time     -   Unanesthetized Schirmer's Test     -   Ora Calibra® Ocular Discomfort Scale     -   Ora Calibra® Ocular Discomfort & 4-Symptom Questionnaire     -   Ocular Surface Disease Index (OSDI)©     -   SANDE questionnaire     -   Tear Osmolarity

Safety Measures:

-   -   Visual acuity     -   Slit-lamp evaluation     -   Adverse event query     -   Intraocular Pressure (IOP)     -   Dilated fundoscopy

General Statistical Methods and Types of Analyses

Sample Size

The study sample size of 100 per group was selected based on prior Phase 2 and 3 clinical trial results using the DED Hybrid CAE study design with other development programs and the effect size seen in Phase 2a with I-5 on change from baseline after four weeks of treatment. This sample size was deemed sufficient to assess the effect size on the DED sign and symptom endpoints with I-5 vs vehicle, to confirm the endpoint selection and sample size needed for Phase 3 studies with I-5. A sample size of 100 per group provided 90% power at α=0.05 to detect an effect size of 0.26 for inferior lissamine green staining (Ora Calibra® scale), assuming a common standard deviation of 0.56 and an effect size of 0.44 for ocular discomfort assessed with the Ora Calibra® Ocular Discomfort Scale assuming a common standard deviation of 0.97.

Efficacy Analysis

-   -   Evaluated baseline to weeks 2, 4, 8 and 12 change scores with         I-5 on DED sign and symptom endpoints (both pre-CAE and CAE         endpoints). Each endpoint was analyzed at a two-sided alpha         level of 0.05, and the overall type I error was not controlled         for in this investigative study.     -   Evaluated effect size of baseline to weeks 2, 4, 8 and 12 change         scores of I-5 vs vehicle on DED sign and symptom endpoints (both         pre-CAE and CAE endpoints) to confirm the endpoint selection for         primary outcome parameters and sample size for Phase 3 studies         with I-5.     -   Sub-group analyses on effect size of baseline to weeks 2, 4, 8         and 12 change scores of I-5 vs vehicle on DED sign and symptom         endpoints (both pre-CAE and CAE endpoints) [Subgroups were         prospectively detailed in the Statistical Analysis Plan (SAP)].

TABLE A Summary of Subject Disposition 1-5 (0.1%) 1-5 (0.25%) Vehicle All Subjects N = 100 N = 100 N = 100 N = 300 Intent-to-Treat 100 (100.0%) 100 (100.0%) 100 (100.0%) 300 (100.0%) Population Per Protocol  97 (97.0%)  86 (86.0%)  98 (98.0%)  281 (93.7%) Population Safety Population 100 (100.0%) 100 (100.0%) 100 (100.0%) 300 (100.0%) Study Completion Completed  97 (97.0%)  88 (88.0%)  99 (99.0%)  284 (94.7%) Discontinued   3 (3.0%)  12 (12.0%)   1 (1.0%)   16 (5.3%) Reason for Study Withdrawal Adverse Events   2 (2.0%)  10 (10.0%) 0   12 (4.0%) Administrative   1 (1.0%) 0 0   1 (0.3%) Reasons Withdrawal 0   1 (1.0%)   1 (1.0%)   2 (0.7%) by Subject Other 0   1 (1.0%) 0   1 (0.3%)

The phase 2b data are shown in FIGS. 1 through 8 and Table above.

Key Observations From Phase 2b Clinical Trial

-   -   1. Early onset of effect from Phase 2b evidenced across multiple         signs and symptoms         -   Majority (>50-100%) of effect vs vehicle seen at the first             study endpoint (Week 2 or 4) in 0.25% group:             -   Positive early onset for 3 out of 4 symptom endpoints:                 ODS, OD4SQ, OSDI                 -   Negative for SANDE             -   Positive early onset for 3 out of 4 sign endpoints:                 Lissamine green total score, fluorescein total score,                 tear osmolarity                 -   Negative for TFBUT® (met definition at week 4)                 -   Schirmer's Test only assessed at week 12     -   2. Dose response was demonstrated between 0.1% and 0.25% dose         strengths     -   3. 0.1% I-5 matched higher dose effects at later time points         -   Clearest effect with signs, especially ocular staining         -   Compliance poorest in 0.25% group (8% non-compliant vs 3% in             the 0.1% group and 1% in the vehicle group)     -   4. Vehicle effect increased with study duration         -   Clearest effect was observed with signs, especially ocular             staining         -   Normal pattern in DED with plateau around two to three             months         -   QID vehicle in Phase 2b was expected to have increased this             effect

TABLE B Phase 2b Clinical Trial Results Heat Map: Broad Phase 2a Activity Reproduced Reproxalap Phase 2b DED Results Heat Map Intent-to-Treat (ITT) p-value Key Population with Observed p < 0.05 = A Data Only Non-CAE and p < 0.10 = B Reproxalap 0.1% Reproxalap 0.25% Pre-CAE p < 0.15 = C Effect vs. Vehicle: Effect vs. Vehicle: Endpoint-Specific Worst Eye wrong Drug Dose Size p-value, ANCOVA Size p-value, ANCOVA (where applicable) signal = N/A Trend? Trend? >0.5 V3 V4 V5 V6 >0.5 V3 V4 V5 V6 Symptom Measures Ocular Discomfort (0-4) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Scale OD & 4-Symptom Overall Ocular (0-5) ✓ ✓ ✓ C ✓ A Questionnaire: Discomfort Burning (0-5) ✓ N/A B N/A Dryness (0-5) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ C A Grittiness (0-5) ✓ ✓ ✓ C Stinging (0-5) ✓ ✓ B C C A Ocular Surface  (0-100) ✓ ✓ N/A Disease Index (OSDI) Severity (0-100 mm) ✓ ✓ N/A ✓ B SANDE Frequency (0-100 mm) ✓ ✓ ✓ Questionnaire Sign Measures Usamine Green Total Score (0-20; Σ 5×) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Staining: (all five regions) Corneal Sum (0-12; Σ 3×) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ C Score (Inferior, Superior, and Central) Conjunctival  (0-8; Σ 2×) ✓ ✓ ✓ C Sum Score (Nasal and Temporal) Inferior (0-4) ✓ ✓ Superior (0-4) ✓ ✓ N/A A N/A N/A Central (0-4) ✓ ✓ N/A N/A ✓ N/A Temporal (0-4) ✓ ✓ ✓ B Nasal (0-4) ✓ ✓ N/A N/A B ✓ C Fluorescein Total Score (0-20; Σ 5×) ✓ ✓ ✓ B Staining: (all five regions) Corneal Sum (0-12; Σ 3×) ✓ ✓ ✓ A N/A Score (Inferior, Superior, and Central) Conjunctival  (0-8; Σ 2×) ✓ ✓ N/A B B Sum Score (Nasal and Temporal) Inferior (0-4) ✓ C Superior (0-4) ✓ N/A ✓ N/A N/A Central (0-4) ✓ ✓ ✓ N/A N/A ✓ N/A Temporal (0-4) ✓ ✓ N/A N/A B B Nasal (0-4) ✓ ✓ N/A A C A B Tear Film Break-up (sec) ✓ ✓ N/A N/A ✓ N/A N/A Time Schirmer's Test (mm) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Osmolarity (mOsm/L) ✓ ✓ {circumflex over ( )}wrong signal defined as an effect less than vehicle, or a worstening vs. baseline.

Example 4: 7-Day DSS-Induced Acute Ulcerative Colitis Model

A study was conducted to evaluate the effects of test compounds on female Swiss Webster mice in a model of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced acute ulcerative colitis (UC).

Introduction

Mice have been shown to develop acute colitis with signs of diarrhea, gross rectal bleeding, and body weight loss within six to ten days after ingesting 3% to 10% DSS (Okayasu, 1990). Gross and histopathologic changes resulting from this treatment resemble those occurring in human ulcerative colitis, a subset of inflammatory bowel disease (Okayasu, 1990; MacDermott, 1992; Cooper, 1993). Compounds that are effective in the treatment of human IBD have activity in this model and it is being used to investigate potential new therapies (Axelsson, 1998; Egger, 1999; Miceli, 1999).

Summary

Female Swiss Webster mice, aged six to eight weeks, were used in the study. The mice weighed approximately 20 to 27 grams (mean 23 g) at enrollment on Study Day −3.

Dextran sulfate sodium (DSS; Spectrum, Cat #DE136, Lot #2DC0020) was stored at room temperature until added to appropriate volume of sterile filtered water (VetOne, Lot #B1712033) to prepare a 3% DSS solution.

The test articles were: Compound I-5, Compound I-22, and Compound I-6.

Test articles for oral (PO) dosing were supplied for the main study were prepared in methylcellulose vehicle (MC: Sigma, Lot #SLBM2910V) at 10 mL/kg.

Compound I-6 for IP dosing at 10 mL/kg was prepared in sulfobutylether-β-cyclodextrin (SBECD) vehicle (Captisol®) by dissolving 20% w/v Captisol® into a solution of sterile saline with sodium phosphate, dibasic, anhydrous and sodium phosphate, monobasic, monohydrate. NaOH was added to adjust the pH to 7.3.

Cyclosporine A (CsA: Teva) was prepared in Kolliphor EL (Sigma)/1% carboxymethylcellulose for PO dosing at 10 mL/kg.

Doses and treatment groups are shown in Table C. On Study Days −3 through 6, mice in Groups 8, 9, and 10 were dosed BID by the oral (PO) route with Compound I-5 (200 mg/kg), Compound I-22 (200 mg/kg), or Compound I-6 (200 mg/kg), respectively. On Study Day 0, Groups 2 through 11 were started on 3% DSS in drinking water. On Study Day 5, DSS water was replaced with normal drinking water for the remainder of the study. On Study Days 0 through 6, mice in Groups 3, 5, 6, and 7 were dosed PO, BID with PO vehicle (MC), Compound I-5 (200 mg/kg), I-22 (200 mg/kg), or I-6 (200 mg/kg), respectively, and mice in Groups 2 and 11 were dosed QD by the intraperitoneal (IP) route with IP vehicle [SBECD (Captisol®)] or I-6 (100 mg/kg), respectively. Positive control mice were dosed PO, QD on Days 0 through 6 with cyclosporine A (CsA, 75 mg/kg). Group 1 animals served as naïve controls. On Study Day 7, the mice were euthanized for necropsy and tissue collection. Efficacy was evaluated based on animal body weight measurements, colon lengths and weights, colon weight-length ratio, colon content scores, disease activity index (DAI) scores (percent body weight loss, stool consistency, occult/gross blood, and summed scores), and histopathology of colons (full, proximal, and distal). All animals in the main study survived to the scheduled termination.

TABLE C Group and Treatment Information Dose Dose Level Dose Vol. Group N DSS Treatment (mg/kg) Route Regimen¹ Dosing Days (mL/kg)² 1 5 N Naive N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 2 10 3% Vehicle (SBECD) N/A IP QD D0 through D6 10 3 10 3% Vehicle (MC) N/A PO BED D0 through D6 10 4 10 3% CsA 75 PO QD D0 through D6 10 5 10 3% Compound I-5  200 PO BID D0 through D6 10 6 10 3% Compound I-22 200 PO BID D0 through D6 10 7 10 3% Compound I-6  200 PO BID D0 through D6 10 8 10 3% Compound I-5  200 PO BID D(−3) through D6 10 9 10 3% Compound I-22 200 PO BID D(−3) through D6 10 10 10 3% Compound I-6  200 PO BID D(−3) through D6 10 11 10 3% Compound I-6  100 IP QD D0 through D6 10 ¹BID dosing occurred at 10- to 12-hour intervals; QD dosing occurred at approximately 24-hour intervals. ²The doses of test articles were calculated daily in mg/kg based on the latest animal body weight.

Disease Activity Index (DAI)

Disease activity was scored on Study Days 0, 2, 4, and 6 according to the following criteria:

Weight Loss Occult Blood or Score (%) Stool Consistency Gross Bleeding 0  <2% Normal Stool Normal (well formed) (no blood in stool) 1  3-8% Semi-Solid Stool Positive blood result in stool 2  9-15 Loose to pasty stool Gross blood (does not adhere to anus) observed in stool 3 >15 Diarrhea (liquid stool that Rectal Bleeding adheres to anus) The three scores were added at each point to obtain a summed score. The area under the curve (AUC) was calculated for each of the three parameters and the summed score for Days 0 through 6. The three scores were added at each time point to obtain a summed score. The area under the curve (AUC) was calculated for each of the three parameters and the summed score for Days 0 through 6.

Necropsy Specimens

At necropsy on Study Day 7, animals from each group were bled to exsanguination and euthanized by cervical dislocation for tissue collection. Whole blood was collected via cardiac blood draw and processed for plasma (K₂EDTA, >150 μL/mouse), which was stored at −80° C. The entire colon from each animal was harvested, inspected visually, and measured for length, and weighed. The colon contents were assessed for clinical evidence of blood or blood-tinged fluid, and scored using the following criteria:

-   -   0=Normal, no blood observed     -   1=Semi-solid stool, may be slightly blood tinged     -   2=Semi-solid to fluid stool with definite evidence of blood     -   3=Bloody fluid or no content (animals with no observable distal         content included in this category)

Morphologic Pathology Methods

Preserved proximal and distal tissues are submitted individually for histopathology. For each region, pieces were cut and embedded in paraffin. Sections were cut and stained with hematoxylin & eosin (H&E). Each piece was evaluated individually, and values were averaged separately for the various regions.

Edema—Submucosal edema was quantitated by measuring the distance from the muscularis mucosa to the internal border of the outer muscle layer in a non-tangential area thought to most represent the severity of this change. Inflammation Score—The extent of macrophage, lymphocyte and polymorphonuclear leukocyte cell (PMN) infiltrate was assigned severity scores according to the following criteria:

-   -   0=Normal     -   0.5=Very Minimal, one or two small foci, mononuclear         inflammatory cells (MNIC), affects less than 1% of the mucosa     -   1=Minimal, larger focal area with MNIC and neutrophils affecting         1 to 10% of the mucosa or minimal diffuse, may be mostly in         areas of submucosal edema or mesentery     -   2=Mild, diffuse mild, or multifocal affecting 11 to 25% of         mucosa with minor focal or multifocal gland separation, no         separation in most areas     -   3=Moderate, 26 to 50% of mucosa affected with minimal to mild         focal or multifocal separation of glands by inflammatory cell         infiltrate, milder in remaining areas of mucosa with some areas         having no gland separation by inflammation     -   4=Marked, 51 to 75% of mucosa affected with mild to moderate         separation of glands by inflammatory cell infiltrate, minimal to         mild in remaining areas of mucosa but all glands have some         separation by infiltrate     -   5=Severe, 76 to 100% of mucosa affected with moderate to marked         areas of gland separation by inflammatory cell infiltrate, mild         to moderate in remaining areas of mucosa         Gland Loss Score—Crypt epithelial and remaining gland epithelial         loss was scored based on the approximate percent of the mucosa         that was affected, as follows:     -   0=None     -   0.5=Very Minimal, one or two small focal areas of gland loss         affecting less than 1% of the mucosa     -   1=Minimal, 1 to 10% of the mucosa affected     -   2=Mild, 11 to 25% of the mucosa affected     -   3=Moderate, 26 to 50% of the mucosa affected     -   4=Marked, 51 to 75% of the mucosa affected     -   5=Severe, 76 to 100% of the mucosa affected         Erosion Score—The loss of surface epithelium was scored based on         the approximate percent of the mucosa that was affected as         follows. This may have been associated with mucosal hemorrhage         (reflective of the bleeding seen clinically and at necropsy):     -   0=None     -   0.5=Very Minimal, one or two small focal areas of mucosal         erosion affecting less than 1% of the mucosa     -   1=Minimal, 1 to 10% of the mucosa affected     -   2=Mild, 11 to 25% of the mucosa affected     -   3=Moderate, 26 to 50% of the mucosa affected     -   4=Marked, 51 to 75% of the mucosa affected     -   5=Severe, 76 to 100% of the mucosa affected         Mucosal Thickness and Hyperplasia Score—Mucosal thickness was         measured in a non-tangential area of the section that best         represents the overall mucosal thickness. This parameter was         indicative of gland elongation and mucosal hyperplasia. A         hyperplasia score was derived from the measurement as follows:     -   0=Normal, ≤200 μm     -   0.5=Very Minimal, 201 to 250 μm     -   1=Minimal, 251 to 350 μm     -   2=Mild, 351 to 450 μm     -   3=Moderate, 451 to 550 μm     -   4=Marked, 551 to 650 μm     -   5=Severe, >650 μm         Histopathology Sum—A sum of inflammation, gland loss, erosion,         and hyperplasia scores was calculated.         PMN Percent and Neutrophil Score—Inflammatory cell infiltrates         in the colonic mucosa were evaluated for approximate percent of         neutrophils in the total infiltrate, rounded to 0, 10, 25, 50,         or 75 percent. This value was then multiplied by the         inflammation score to determine the neutrophil score.         Lymphoid Aggregate Count and Diameter—The number of definite         mucosal lymphoid aggregates (GALT, Peyer's patches) were         recorded. Measurements were made by optical micrometer, and         comments about the general size range are included.

Statistical Analysis

Clinical data were entered into Microsoft Excel, and arithmetic means and standard errors were calculated. Groups were compared to vehicle controls using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with a Dunnett's post-hoc analysis or a Student's two-tailed t-test for measured data (parametric) or a Kruskal-Wallis test with a Dunn's post hoc analysis or Mann-Whitney U test for scored data (non-parametric). Naïve animals were compared to vehicle controls using a Student's two-tailed t-test for model validation. Statistical analysis was performed using Prism 7.0d software (GraphPad). Unless indicated statistical analyses were performed on raw (untransformed) data only. Statistical tests make certain assumptions regarding normality and homogeneity of variance, and further analysis may be required if testing resulted in violations of these assumptions. P values were rounded to three decimal places. Significance for all tests was set at p<0.050.

Percent inhibition was calculated using the following formula:

% Change=B/A×100

-   -   A=Mean Normal−Mean Disease Control     -   B=Mean Treated−Mean Disease Control

Results

Oral vehicle control mice (Group 3) had disease-induced body weight loss, with a maximum decrease of 9.1% on Day 7 (mean decrease of 1.97 g). IP vehicle control mice (Group 2) had disease-induced body weight loss, with a maximum decrease of 11.8% on Day 7 (mean decrease of 2.46 g). Body weight loss was significantly inhibited in mice treated IP with 100 mg/kg Compound I-6 (Group 11; Days 0 through 6) compared to IP vehicle (SBECD) control mice (Group 2). Body weights of mice treated PO with Compound I-5, Compound I-22, or Compound I-6 (Groups 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10) did not differ significantly from PO vehicle control animals. Body weight loss in mice treated PO with CsA (Group 4) was significantly less than in IP vehicle (SBECD) control mice (FIG. 11 ).

Disease activity index (DAI) scores of body weight loss, stool consistency, occult/gross blood in stool, and summed scores peaked on Day 6 in PO and IP vehicle control mice. DAI scores between Vehicle (IP) control mice (Group 2) and Vehicle (PO) control mice (Group 3) did not differ significantly. Mice treated IP with 100 mg/kg Compound I-6 (Group 11; Days 0 through 6) had significantly reduced stool consistency scores on Day 2, significantly reduced occult/gross blood in stool scores on Days 4 and 6, and significantly reduced summed scores on Day 6, compared to IP vehicle control mice (Group 2). DAI scores of stool consistency, occult/gross blood in stool and summed scores expressed as area under the curve (AUC) were significantly lower following IP treatment with Compound I-6 (Group 11), compared to IP vehicle control mice (Group 2). Mice treated PO with 200 mg/kg Compound I-22 (Group 6; Days 0 through 6) had significantly reduced stool consistency scores on Day 2, compared to PO vehicle control mice (Group 3). Body weight loss in CsA-treated mice (Group 4) was significantly less than in IP vehicle control mice (Group 2) on Days 2 and 4 and in PO vehicle control mice (Group 3) on Day 2. Occult/gross blood in stool scores were significantly lower on Days 4 and 6 in CsA-treated mice (Group 4) compared to IP vehicle control animals (Group 2), and summed scores in CsA-treated mice were significantly lower on Day 6 than in either the PO or IP vehicle controls. DAI scores AUC for stool consistency and occult/gross blood in stool were significantly lower following treatment with CsA (Group 4) compared to PO and IP vehicle controls (Groups 3 and 2, respectively), and DAI scores AUC for body weight loss in CsA-treated mice were significantly increased as compared to IP vehicle controls.

PO vehicle control mice (Group 3) had colon lengths that ranged from 5.25 cm to 7.25 cm (mean=6.03 cm). IP vehicle control mice (Group 2) had colon lengths that ranged from 4.75 cm to 6.25 cm (mean=5.35 cm). Mean colon lengths were significantly increased in PO vehicle control mice (Group 3) compared to IP vehicle control mice (Group 2). Colon lengths were significantly (41%) increased, in the direction of normal, in mice treated PO with 200 mg/kg Compound I-22 (Group 6; Days 0 through 6) compared to PO vehicle control mice (Group 3). Colon lengths were significantly (56%) increased, in the direction of normal, in mice treated IP with 100 mg/kg Compound I-6 (Group 11; Days 0 through 6) compared to IP vehicle control mice (Group 2). Mice treated with CsA had significantly increased colon lengths compared to IP vehicle control mice (61%) and PO vehicle control mice (51%).

PO vehicle control mice (Group 3) had colon weights that ranged from 0.215 g to 0.303 g (mean=0.257 g). IP vehicle control mice (Group 2) had colon weights that ranged from 0.201 g to 0.325 g (mean=0.276 g). Mean colon weights in treated animals did not differ significantly from their respective vehicle controls.

PO vehicle control mice (Group 3) had colon weight-to-length ratios that ranged from 0.030 g/cm to 0.051 g/cm (mean=0.043 g/cm). IP vehicle control mice (Group 2) had colon weight-to-length ratios that ranged from 0.035 g/cm to 0.062 g/cm (mean=0.052 g/cm). Mean colon weight-to-length ratios were significantly increased in IP vehicle control mice (Group 2) as compared to PO vehicle control mice (Group 3). Colon weight-to-length ratios were significantly (35%) reduced, in the direction of normal, in mice treated IP with 100 mg/kg Compound I-6 (Group 11); Days 0 through 6) compared to IP vehicle control mice (Group 2). Mice treated with CsA (Group 4) had significantly reduced colon weight-to-length ratios compared to IP vehicle control mice (65%) and PO vehicle control mice (45%).

At necropsy, all PO and IP vehicle control mice (Groups 2 and 3) had semi-solid to fluid, blood-tinged, or bloody stool. Colon content scores were significantly (37%) reduced, in the direction of normal, in mice treated with CsA (Group 4) as compared to IP vehicle control mice, but not PO vehicle mice (Group 3).

Morphologic Pathology

All PO vehicle control mice (Group 3) had very minimal-to-severe colon inflammation with none-to-severe gland loss and erosion, and none-to-mild hyperplasia. Disease severity was similar in the distal colon (mean summed score=4.7) and the proximal colon (mean score=4.8). Colon mucosa had approximately 17% polymorphonuclear leukocyte cell (PMN) infiltrates, contributing to a mean neutrophil score of 0.4 in the full colon. Mean colon edema was 71.7 μm. Mean mucosal thickness was 247.5 μm. Lymphoid aggregates were seen in nine of ten PO vehicle mice and had a maximum size range of 50 to 250 μm. All full colon parameters except erosion and lymphoid aggregate counts were significantly increased in PO vehicle controls compared to naïve mice (FIGS. 17 through 24 ).

All IP vehicle control mice (Group 2) had very minimal-to-severe colon inflammation (one of ten animals had no inflammation in one proximal colon section) with none-to-severe gland loss and erosion, and none-to-mild hyperplasia. Disease severity was increased in the distal colon (mean summed score=9.4) as compared to the proximal colon (mean score=4.7). Colon mucosa had approximately 24% PMN infiltrates, contributing to a mean neutrophil score of 0.8 in the full colon. Mean colon edema was 98.3 μm. Mean mucosal thickness was 256.7 μm. Lymphoid aggregates were seen in all IP vehicle mice and had a maximum size range of 50 to 250 μm. All full colon parameters, except lymphoid aggregate counts, were significantly increased in IP vehicle controls as compared to naïve mice. IP vehicle control mice had significantly increased distal colon edema, inflammation, gland loss, erosion, summed scores, PMN percentages, and neutrophil scores, and significantly increased full colon PMN percentages and neutrophil scores compared to PO vehicle control mice (FIGS. 17 through 24 ).

Mice treated PO with 200 mg/kg Compound I-22 (Group 6; Days 0 through 6) had significantly reduced full colon edema (62% reduction), proximal colon edema (43%), distal colon edema (78%), distal colon hyperplasia (86%), and distal colon mucosal thickness (66%) compared to PO vehicle control mice (Group 3). PMN percentages in the proximal colon were significantly increased in mice treated PO with 200 mg/kg Compound I-22 (Days 0 through 6) as compared to PO vehicle control mice (FIGS. 17 through 24 ).

Mice treated PO with 200 mg/kg Compound I-6 (Group 7; Days 0 through 6) had significantly reduced full colon edema (44% reduction), proximal colon edema (48%), and proximal colon inflammation (36%) compared to PO vehicle control mice (FIGS. 17 through 24 ).

Mice treated PO with 200 mg/kg Compound I-5 (Group 8; Days −3 through 6) had significantly reduced proximal colon edema (63% reduction) and proximal colon erosion (73%) compared to PO vehicle control mice (FIGS. 17 through 24 ).

Mice treated PO with 200 mg/kg Compound I-22 (Group 9; Days −3 through 6) had significantly reduced full colon edema (48% reduction), proximal colon edema (60%), and proximal colon mucosal thickness (58%) compared to PO vehicle control mice (FIGS. 17 through 24 ).

Mice treated PO with 200 mg/kg Compound I-6 (Group 10; Days −3 through 6) had significantly reduced full colon edema (58% reduction), proximal colon edema (41%), and proximal colon erosion (75%) compared to PO vehicle control mice (FIGS. 17 through 24 ).

Mice treated IP with 100 mg/kg Compound I-6 (Group 11; Days 0 through 6) had significantly reduced edema (53%), inflammation (56%), gland loss (82%), erosion (91%), summed scores (68%) PMN percentages (53%), neutrophil scores (73%), and lymphoid aggregate counts (113%) in the full colon compared to IP vehicle control mice. In the proximal colon, inflammation (32%), gland loss (57%), summed scores (36%), and lymphoid aggregate counts (107%) were significantly reduced by IP treatment with 100 mg/kg Compound I-6 (Days 0 through 6). In the distal colon, all histopathology parameters were significantly reduced (45 to 116%) by IP treatment with 100 mg/kg Compound I-6 (Days 0 through 6) compared to IP vehicle control mice (FIGS. 17 through 24 ).

Mice treated with CsA (Group 4) had significantly reduced edema (57%), inflammation (41%), gland loss (55%), hyperplasia (77%), summed scores (51%) PMN percentages (48%), neutrophil scores (50%), mucosal thickness (73%), and lymphoid aggregate counts (104%) in the full colon compared to IP vehicle control mice. Full colon edema (41%), hyperplasia (74%), mucosal thickness (70%), and lymphoid aggregate counts (106%) were significantly reduced by CsA treatment compared to PO vehicle controls. In the proximal colon, all histopathology parameters except edema and PMN percentages were significantly (4 to 95%) reduced by CsA treatment compared to PO and IP control mice. In the distal colon, CsA treatment resulted in significantly reduced edema (72%), inflammation (43%), gland loss (55%), hyperplasia (76%), summed scores (54%) PMN percentages (58%), neutrophil scores (60%), mucosal thickness (61%), and lymphoid aggregate counts (116%) compared to IP vehicle controls and significantly reduced edema (52%) and hyperplasia (66%) compared to PO vehicle controls (FIGS. 17 through 24 ).

Discussion and Conclusion

Results of treatment with CsA were as expected, in that treatment resulted in significant improvement to DAI scores, colon lengths, colon weight-length ratios, colon content scores, and colon histopathology.

Daily, intraperitoneal treatment with 100 mg/kg Compound I-6 dosed on Days 0 through 6 showed significant beneficial effect on DSS-induced acute UC in female Swiss Webster mice as determined by evaluation of body weight loss, disease activity scores, colon lengths and weight-length ratios, and colon histopathology. Twice daily, oral treatment with 200 mg/kg Compound I-22 dosed on Days 0 through 6 showed significant beneficial effects on daily stool consistency scores, colon lengths, and colon histopathology. Twice daily, oral treatment with 200 mg/kg Compound I-6 dosed on Days 0 through 6 and twice daily, oral treatment with 200 mg/kg Compound I-5, 200 mg/kg Compound I-22, or 200 mg/kg Compound I-6 resulted in significant beneficial effects on colon histopathology. All main study animals survived to the scheduled termination.

All publications, patents, patent applications and other documents cited in this application are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties for all purposes to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, patent application or other document were individually indicated to be incorporated by reference for all purposes.

While we have described a number of embodiments of this invention, it is apparent that our basic examples may be altered to provide other embodiments that utilize the compounds and methods of this invention. Therefore, it will be appreciated that the scope of this invention is to be defined by the appended claims rather than by the specific embodiments that have been represented by way of example. 

We claim: 1-13. (canceled)
 14. A method of treating a disease, disorder, or condition, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof an effective amount of the following compound:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein the disease, disorder, or condition is atopic dermatitis.
 15. The method according to claim 14, wherein the compound or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof is administered as a free base.
 16. The method according to claim 14, wherein the compound or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof is administered systemically to the subject.
 17. The method according to claim 14, wherein the compound or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof is administered orally to the subject. 